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Theories of Personality
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ELEVENTH EDITION
Theories of Personality
Australia Brazil Mexico Singapore United Kingdom United States
DUANE P . SCHULTZ
University of South Florida
SYDNEY ELLEN SCHULTZ
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Theories of Personality, Eleventh Edition
Duane P. Schultz and
Sydney Ellen Schultz
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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2015
WCN: 02-200-203
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brief Contents
Preface xiii
CHAPTER 1 Personality: What It Is and Why You Should Care 1
The Psychoanalytic Approach 35
CHAPTER 2 Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis 37
The Neo-psychoanalytic Approach 79
CHAPTER 3 Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology 81
CHAPTER 4 Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology 108
CHAPTER 5 Karen Horney: Neurotic Needs and Trends 135
The Life-Span Approach 157
CHAPTER 6 Erik Erikson: Identity Theory 159
The Genetics Approach 191
CHAPTER 7 Gordon Allport: Motivation and Personality 193
CHAPTER 8 Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, the Five-Factor Theory, HEXACO,
and the Dark Triad 213
The Humanistic Approach 245
CHAPTER 9 Abraham Maslow: Needs-Hierarchy Theory 247
CHAPTER 10 Carl Rogers: Self-Actualization Theory 271
The Cognitive Approach 291
CHAPTER 11 George Kelly: Personal Construct Theory 293
The Behavioral Approach 315
CHAPTER 12 B. F. Skinner: Reinforcement Theory 317
The Social-Learning Approach 339
CHAPTER 13 Albert Bandura: Modeling Theory 341
v
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The Limited-Domain Approach 369
CHAPTER 14 Facets of Personality: Taking Control, Taking Chances, and Finding
Happiness 371
CHAPTER 15 Personality in Perspective 407
Glossary 419
References 425
Author Index 475
Subject Index 492
vi Brief Contents
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contents
Preface xiii
CHAPTER 1 Personality: What It Is and Why You Should Care 1
Take a Look at the Word 1
Research in the Study of Personality 24
The Role of Theory in Personality Theories 29
Questions about Human Nature: What Are We Like? 31
Chapter Summary 33
Review Questions 33
Suggested Readings 34
The Psychoanalytic Approach 35
CHAPTER 2 Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis 37
The Life of Freud (18561939) 38
Freud Comes to America 42
The Final Years 42
Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality 43
The Levels of Personality 44
The Structure of Personality 45
Anxiety: A Threat to the Ego 47
Defenses against Anxiety 49
Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development 51
Questions about Human Nature 57
Assessment in Freuds Theory 58
Criticisms of Freuds Research 60
Extensions of Freudian Theory 73
Reflections on Freuds Theory 74
Chapter Summary 76
Review Questions 77
Suggested Readings 78
The Neo-psychoanalytic Approach 79
CHAPTER 3 Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology 81
The Life of Jung (18751961) 82
Psychic Energy: The Basis of Jungs System 86
Aspects of Personality 87
The Development of the Personality 93
Questions about Human Nature 96
vii
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Assessment in Jungs Theory 97
Research on Jungs Theory 100
Reflections on Jungs Theory 105
Chapter Summary 106
Review Questions 106
Suggested Readings 107
CHAPTER 4 Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology 108
The Life of Adler (18701937) 109
Inferiority Feelings: The Source of All Human Striving 111
Striving for Superiority, or Perfection 113
The Style of Life 114
Social Interest 116
Birth Order 117
Questions about Human Nature 120
Assessment in Adlers Theory 120
Research on Adlers Theory 123
Reflections on Adlers Theory 130
Chapter Summary 133
Review Questions 133
Suggested Readings 134
CHAPTER 5 Karen Horney: Neurotic Needs and Trends 135
The Life of Horney (18851952) 136
The Childhood Need for Safety and Security 139
Basic Anxiety: The Foundation of Neurosis 140
Neurotic Needs 141
The Idealized Self-Image 145
Feminine Psychology 146
Questions about Human Nature 149
Assessment in Horneys Theory 150
Research on Horneys Theory 151
Reflections on Horneys Theory 153
Chapter Summary 154
Review Questions 155
Suggested Readings 155
The Life-Span Approach 157
CHAPTER 6 Erik Erikson: Identity Theory 159
The Life of Erikson (19021994) 160
Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development 162
Basic Weaknesses 170
Questions about Human Nature 170
Assessment in Eriksons Theory 171
Research on Eriksons Theory 172
viii Contents
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Reflections on Eriksons Theory 188
Chapter Summary 189
Review Questions 189
Suggested Readings 190
The Genetics Approach 191
CHAPTER 7 Gordon Allport: Motivation and Personality 193
Allport Brings Personality into the Classroom and the Psychology Lab 193
The Life of Allport (18971967) 194
The Nature of Personality 196
Personality Traits 197
Motivation: What We Strive for 198
Personality Development in Childhood: The Unique Self 200
The Healthy Adult Personality 202
Questions about Human Nature 203
Assessment in Allports Theory 204
Research on Allports Theory 205
Reflections on Allports Theory 210
Chapter Summary 211
Review Questions 211
Suggested Readings 212
CHAPTER 8 Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, the Five-Factor Theory, HEXACO,
and the Dark Triad 213
Predicting Behavior 214
The Life of Cattell (19051998) 214
Cattells Approach to Personality Traits 216
Source Traits: The Basic Factors of Personality 218
Dynamic Traits: The Motivating Forces 219
Stages of Personality Development 219
Questions about Human Nature 221
Assessment in Cattells Theory 222
Research on Cattells Theory 223
Reflections on Cattells Theory 225
Behavioral Genetics 226
Hans Eysenck (19161997) 226
The Dimensions of Personality 226
Robert McCrae and Paul Costa: The Five-Factor Model 230
Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee: HEXACO: The Six-Factor Model 239
Delroy Paulhus and Kevin Williams: The Dark Triad of
Personality 240
Personality Traits and the Internet 241
Reflections on the Trait Approach 242
Chapter Summary 242
Contents ix
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Review Questions 243
Suggested Readings 243
The Humanistic Approach 245
CHAPTER 9 Abraham Maslow: Needs-Hierarchy Theory 247
The Life of Maslow (19081970) 248
Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs 250
The Study of Self-Actualizers 255
Questions about Human Nature 260
Assessment in Maslows Theory 261
Research on Maslows Theory 262
Reflections on Maslows Theory 238
Chapter Summary 239
Review Questions 270
Suggested Readings 270
CHAPTER 10 Carl Rogers: Self-Actualization Theory 271
The Life of Rogers (19021987) 272
The Self and the Tendency toward Actualization 274
The Experiential World 276
The Development of the Self in Childhood 276
Characteristics of Fully Functioning Persons 279
Questions about Human Nature 281
Assessment in Rogerss Theory 282
Research on Rogerss Theory 283
Reflections on Rogerss Theory 288
Chapter Summary 289
Review Questions 289
Suggested Readings 290
The Cognitive Approach 291
CHAPTER 11 George Kelly: Personal Construct Theory 293
The Cognitive Movement in Psychology 293
The Life of Kelly (19051967) 295
Personal Construct Theory 297
Ways of Anticipating Life Events 398
Questions about Human Nature 304
Assessment in Kellys Theory 304
Research on Kellys Theory 308
Reflections on Kellys Theory 312
Chapter Summary 313
Review Questions 313
Suggested Readings 314
x Contents
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The Behavioral Approach 315
CHAPTER 12 B. F. Skinner: Reinforcement Theory 317
Rats, Pigeons, and an Empty Organism 317
The Life of Skinner (19041990) 318
Reinforcement: The Basis of Behavior 321
Operant Conditioning and the Skinner Box 323
Schedules of Reinforcement 324
The Shaping of Behavior 326
Superstitious Behavior 328
The Self-Control of Behavior 329
Applications of Operant Conditioning 330
Questions about Human Nature 332
Assessment in Skinners Theory 333
Research on Skinners Theory 334
Reflections on Skinners Theory 335
Chapter Summary 337
Review Questions 337
Suggested Readings 338
The Social-Learning Approach 339
CHAPTER 13 Albert Bandura: Modeling Theory 341
The Life of Bandura (1925) 342
Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning 343
The Processes of Observational Learning 348
Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy 350
Developmental Stages of Self-Efficacy 353
Behavior Modification 354
Questions about Human Nature 357
Assessment in Banduras Theory 357
Research on Banduras Theory 357
Reflections on Banduras Theory 366
Chapter Summary 367
Review Questions 368
Suggested Readings 368
The Limited-Domain Approach 369
CHAPTER 14 Facets of Personality: Taking Control, Taking Chances, and Finding
Happiness 371
Julian Rotter: Locus of Control 372
Marvin Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking 378
Martin E. P. Seligman: Learned Helplessness and the Optimistic/Pessimistic
Explanatory Style 385
Contents xi
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Martin Seligman: Positive Psychology 395
Chapter Summary 404
Review Questions 405
Suggested Readings 405
CHAPTER 15 Personality in Perspective 407
The Genetic Factor 407
The Environmental Factor 408
The Learning Factor 410
The Parental Factor 411
The Developmental Factor 413
The Consciousness Factor 416
The Unconscious Factor 416
Final Comment 417
Review Questions 417
Glossary 419
References 425
Author Index 475
Subject Index 492
xii Contents
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preface to the Eleventh Edition
Each edition of a textbook must be as vital, dynamic, and responsive to change as the
field it covers. To remain an effective teaching instrument, it must reflect the develop-
ment of the field and continue to challenge its readers. We have seen the focus of per-
sonality study shift from global theories, beginning with Sigmund Freuds 19th-century
psychoanalytic theory of neuroses, to 21st-century explorations of more limited person-
ality facets or dimensions. And we have seen the basis of personality exploration change
from case studies of emotionally disturbed persons to more scientifically based research
with diverse populations. Contemporary work in the field reflects differences in gender,
age, and sexual orientation as well as ethnic, racial, religious, and cultural heritage.
New and Expanded Coverage
New biographical material has been included for the theorists, to suggest how the devel-
opment of their theory may have been influenced by events in their personal and profes-
sional lives. This approach shows students that the development of science through
theory and research is not always totally objective. It may also derive from intuition
and personal experience later refined and extended by more rational, analytic processes.
Social and cultural influences on the theorists beliefs about human nature are also
described.
The sections on personality research have been updated with nearly 400 new refer-
ences to maintain the emphasis on current issues. Research findings have been summa-
rized throughout the text in Highlights boxes; this feature presents bullet point lists to
help the student organize and compare the results of research studies.
Some of the topics with new and expanded coverage include the following:
Do we present our true selves on social media? How does the use of social media
influence our personality? How does our personality influence our use of social
media? Do selfies show the real you?
Updated work on the MMPI, the Rorschach, and the Thematic Apperception Test.
The Mechanical Turka new way to conduct personality research online.
New findings on the Freudian concepts of ego resilience, the Oedipus complex, and
defense mechanisms. New findings on dreams, and the use of computers to interpret
dreams.
Social companion robots to facilitate psychoanalysis.
Research on Jungs Psychological Types conducted in Arab cultures.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as a result of neglect in childhood.
New findings on Adlers concept of birth order.
Over 30 new studies on Eriksons concepts of ego identity, gender preference, virtual
ethnic identity, gender differences in toy preferences, and his stages of development.
Cultural differences from Allports work extended to the facial expression of
emotions.
More on the five-factor model of personality and the Dark Triadan approach that
includes narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy.
The Smartphone Basic Needs Scalea self-report inventory designed to measure
how Maslows hierarchy of needs can be satisfied by smartphone use.
xiii
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New research findings on self-efficacy and locus of control.
Techniques to measure sensation seeking. The relationship between sensation seek-
ing and cyberbullying.
More on Seligmans life and his development of positive psychology. Defining and
finding happiness. The concept of flourishing. And how learned helplessness was
used in developing techniques of torture in the war on terror.
Organization of the Text
The eleventh edition of Theories of Personality retains its orientation toward undergrad-
uate students who have had little previous exposure to personality theories. Our purpose
is to reach out to beginning students and ease their task of learning about the study of
personality. We have chosen theorists who represent psychoanalytic, neopsychoanalytic,
lifespan, genetics, humanistic, cognitive, behavioral, and social-learning approaches, as
well as clinical and experimental work. The concluding chapter reviews these perspec-
tives that describe personality development and suggests ways to help students draw con-
clusions and achieve closure from their studies.
Each theory in the text is discussed as a unit. Although we recognize the value of an
issues or problems approach that compares theories on specific points, we believe that the
issues-oriented book is more appropriate for higher-level students. The theories-oriented
text makes it easier for beginning students to grasp a theorys essential concepts and overall
flavor. We try to present each theory clearly, to convey its most important ideas, assump-
tions, definitions, and methods. We discuss each theorists methods of assessment and
empirical research and offer evaluations and reflections. Except for placing Freud first in
recognition of his chronological priority, we have not arranged the theories in order of per-
ceived importance. Each theory is placed in the perspective of competing viewpoints.
A Note on Diversity
The first person to propose a comprehensive theory of the human personality was Sig-
mund Freud, a 19th-century clinical neurologist who formulated his ideas while treating
patients in Vienna, Austria. His work, called psychoanalysis, was based largely on ses-
sions with wealthy White European women who came to him complaining of emotional
distress and disturbing thoughts and behaviors. From his observations of their progress,
or lack of it, he offered a theory to explain everyones personality. Freuds system was
important for the concepts he proposedmany of which are now part of popular
cultureas well as for the opposition he provoked, inspiring other theorists to examine
and promote their own ideas to explain personality.
Today, personality theorists and researchers recognize that an explanation based on a
small, homogeneous segment of the population cannot be applied to the diverse groups
of people sharing space in our world. The situation is similar in medicine. Medical
researchers recognize, for example, that some medications and treatments appropriate
for young adults are not suitable for children or elderly people. Diseases prevalent in
certain ethnic groups are rare in others, requiring differences in medical screening and
testing for diverse populations. Contemporary personality theory strives to be inclusive,
studying the influences of age, gender, race, ethnic origin, religious beliefs, sexual orien-
tation, and child-rearing practices. We see examples of this diversity throughout the text.
xiv Preface to the Eleventh Edition
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Features
For the student, we offer chapter outlines, summaries, research highlights, review ques-
tions, annotated reading lists, margin glossary terms, a cumulative glossary, tables and
figures, a reference list, and referrals to relevant Web sites.
For instructors, the instructors manual with test bank has been thoroughly revised
and offers lecture outlines, ideas for class discussion, projects, useful web links, and test
items. The test bank is available in digital formats. PowerPoint Lecture Slides and elec-
tronic transparencies are available on eBank. The transparencies feature select figures
and tables from the text loaded into Microsoft PowerPoint. Contact your local sales rep-
resentative for details.
Duane P. Schultz
Sydney Ellen Schultz
Preface to the Eleventh Edition xv
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
chapter 1
Personality: What It Is and
Why You Should Care
Take a Look at the Word
Everybody Has One
Describing Your Personality
How Does Personality Develop?
Ways of Looking at Personality
How Others See Us
Stable and Predictable Characteristics
Unique Characteristics
Personality and the Social Media
Are You the Same Person Online?
How Does the Social Media Influence Our
Personality?
How Does Our Personality Influence Our Use of
Social Media?
The Role of Race and Gender in Shaping
Personality
The Role of Culture in Shaping
Personality
Different Cultural Beliefs about Destiny
Individualism
Child-Rearing Practices
Self-Enhancement
A Diversity of Cultures
Assessing Your Personality
The Concepts of Reliability and Validity
Self-Report Personality Tests
Online Test Administration
Projective Techniques
Clinical Interviews
Behavioral Assessment
Thought and Experience Assessment
Gender and Ethnic Issues That Affect
Assessment
Research in the Study of Personality
The Clinical Method
The Experimental Method
Virtual Research
The Correlational Method
The Role of Theory in Personality
Theories
The Autobiographical Nature of Personality
Theories
Questions about Human Nature:
What Are We Like?
Are We in Charge of Our Lives? Free Will versus
Determinism
What Dominates Us? Our Inherited Nature or
Our Nurturing Environment?
Are We Dependent or Independent of
Childhood?
Is Human Nature Unique or Universal?
Our Life Goals: Satisfaction or Growth?
Our Outlook: Optimism or Pessi
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