solved: See attachment Overview Required Resources https://health.gov/healthypeople/objectives-and-dat

1. PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATIONS

Professional communication in written form requires skill and expertise. From text messages to

reports, how you represent yourself with the written word counts. Writing in an online environment

requires tact, skill, and an awareness that what you write may be there forever. From memos to letters,

from business proposals to press releases, your written business communication represents you and

your company: your goal is to make it clear, concise, and professional.

Chapter Attribution Information

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from the following sources:

• Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

• Professional Writing by Saylor Academy – CC: BY 3.0

• Communicating Online: Netiquette by UBC Centre for Teaching, Learning and Technology –

CC: BY-SA 4.0

http://ctlt.ubc.ca/distance-learning/learner-support/communicating-online-netiquette/

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

1 . 1 T E X T I N G

Text messages and e-mails are part of our communication landscape, and skilled business

communicators consider them a valuable tool to connect.

Whatever digital device you use, written communication in the form of brief messages, or texting,

has become a common way to connect. It is useful for short exchanges, and is a convenient way to stay

connected with others when talking on the phone would be cumbersome. Texting is not useful for

long or complicated messages, and careful consideration should be given to the audience. Although

texting will not be used in this class as a form of professional communication, you should be aware of

several of the principles that should guide your writing in this context.

When texting, always consider your audience and your company, and choose words, terms, or

abbreviations that will deliver your message appropriately and effectively.

T I P S F O R E F F E C T I V E B U S I N E S S T E X T I N G

• Know your recipient. “? % dsct” may be an understandable way to ask a close associate what the

proper discount is to offer a certain customer, but if you are writing a text to your boss, it might be

wiser to write, “what % discount does Murray get on $1K order?”

• Anticipate unintentional misinterpretation. Texting often uses symbols and codes to represent

thoughts, ideas, and emotions. Given the complexity of communication, and the useful but limited

tool of texting, be aware of its limitation and prevent misinterpretation with brief messages.

• Contacting someone too frequently can border on harassment. Texting is a tool. Use it when

appropriate but don’t abuse it.

• Don’t text and drive. Research shows that the likelihood of an accident increases dramatically if

the driver is texting behind the wheel. 1 Being in an accident while conducting company business

would reflect poorly on your judgment as well as on your employer.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from the following sources:

• Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

• Professional Writing by Saylor Academy – CC: BY 3.0

1. Houston Chronicle. (2009, September 23). Deadly distraction: Texting while driving, twice as risky as drunk driving, should be banned. Houston

Chronicle (3 STAR R.O. ed.), p. B8. Retrieved from http://www.chron.com/opinion/editorials/article/Deadly-distraction-Texting-while-

driving-should-1592397.php

TECHNICAL WRITING 7

http://www.cocc.edu/multicultural/safe-zone-training/

1 . 2 E – M A I L

E-mail is familiar to most students and workers. It may be used like text, or synchronous chat, and

it can be delivered to a cell phone. In business, email has largely replaced print hard copy letters for

external (outside the company) correspondence, and in many cases, it has taken the place of memos

for internal (within the company) communication.1 E-mail can be very useful for messages that have

slightly more content than a text message, but it is still best used for fairly brief messages. Many

businesses use automated e-mails to acknowledge communications from the public, or to remind

associates that periodic reports or payments are due. You may also be assigned to “populate” a form

e-mail in which standard paragraphs are used, but you choose from a menu of sentences to make the

wording suitable for a particular transaction.

E-mails may be informal in personal contexts, but business communication requires attention to

detail, awareness that your e-mail reflects you and your company, and a professional tone so that it

may be forwarded to any third party if needed. E-mail often serves to exchange information within

organizations. Although e-mail may have an informal feel, remember that when used for business, it

needs to convey professionalism and respect. Never write or send anything that you wouldn’t want

read in public or in front of your company president.

T I P S F O R E F F E C T I V E B U S I N E S S E – M A I L S

As with all writing, professional communications require attention to the specific writing context,

and it may surprise you that even elements of form can indicate a writer’s strong understanding of

audience and purpose. The principles explained here apply to the educational context as well; use

them when communicating with your instructors and classroom peers.

• Open with a proper salutation. Proper salutations demonstrate respect and avoid mix-ups in case

a message is accidentally sent to the wrong recipient. For example, use a salutation like “Dear Ms.

X” (external) or “Hi Barry” (internal). Never use the title Mrs. as you cannot assume a woman is

married. If the gender of a person is not evident, use their entire name, like this: “Dear Sam Jones”

• Include a clear, brief, and specific subject line. This helps the recipient understand the essence of

the message. For example, “Proposal attached” or “Your question of 10/25.”

• Close with a signature. Identify yourself by creating a signature block that automatically contains

your name and business contact information.

• Avoid abbreviations. An e-mail is not a text message, and the audience may not find your wit

cause to ROTFLOL (roll on the floor laughing out loud).

1. Guffey, M. (2008). Essentials of business communication (7th ed.). Mason, OH: Thomson/Wadsworth.

8 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

• Be brief. Omit unnecessary words.

• Use a good format. Divide your message into brief paragraphs for ease of reading. A good e-mail

should get to the point and conclude in three small paragraphs or less.

• Reread, revise, and review. Catch and correct spelling and grammar mistakes before you press

“send.” It will take more time and effort to undo the problems caused by a hasty, poorly written e-

mail than to get it right the first time.

• Reply promptly. Watch out for an emotional response—never reply in anger—but make a habit of

replying to all e-mails within twenty-four hours, even if only to say that you will provide the

requested information in forty-eight or seventy-two hours.

• Use “Reply All” sparingly. Do not send your reply to everyone who received the initial e-mail

unless your message absolutely needs to be read by the entire group.

• Avoid using all caps. Capital letters are used on the Internet to communicate emphatic emotion

or yelling and are considered rude.

• Test links. If you include a link, test it to make sure it is working.

• E-mail ahead of time if you are going to attach large files (audio and visual files are often quite

large) to prevent exceeding the recipient’s mailbox limit or triggering the spam filter.

• Give feedback or follow up. If you don’t get a response in twenty-four hours, e-mail or call. Spam

filters may have intercepted your message, so your recipient may never have received it.

Figure 1 shows a sample email that demonstrates the principles listed above.

Figure 1. Sample email

From: Steve Jobs <[email protected]>
To: Human Resources Division <[email protected]>
Date: September 12, 2015
Subject: Safe Zone Training

Dear Colleagues:
Please consider signing up for the next available Safe Zone workshop offered by the College. As you know, our department is working toward

increasing the number of Safe Zone volunteers in our area, and I hope several of you may be available for the next workshop scheduled for Friday,
October 9.

For more information on the Safe Zone program, please visit http://www.cocc.edu/multicultural/safe-zone-training/
Please let me know if you will attend.
Steve Jobs

CEO Apple Computing
[email protected]

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from the following sources:

• Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

• Professional Writing by Saylor Academy – CC: BY 3.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 9

https://www.cocc.edu/departments/its/network-administration/files/cocc_acceptable_use_of_information_technology_resources_12.pdf

1 . 3 N E T I Q U E T T E

Netiquette refers to etiquette, or protocols and norms for communication, on the Internet. We create

personal pages, post messages, and interact via online technologies as a normal part of our careers,

but how we conduct ourselves can leave a lasting image, literally. The photograph you posted on your

Facebook page or Twitter feed may have been seen by your potential employer, or that nasty remark

in a post may come back to haunt you later.

Following several guidelines for online postings, as detailed below, can help you avoid

embarrassment later.

K N O W YO U R C O N T E X T

• Introduce yourself.

• Avoid assumptions about your readers. Remember that culture influences communication style

and practices.

• Familiarize yourself with policies on Acceptable Use of IT Resources at your organization. (One

example of a college’s acceptable use policy can be found here: https://www.cocc.edu/

departments/its/network-administration/files/

cocc_acceptable_use_of_information_technology_resources_12.pdf/ )

R E M E M B E R T H E H U M A N

• Remember there is a person behind the words. Ask for clarification before making judgement.

• Check your tone before you publish.

• Respond to people using their names.

• Remember that culture and even gender can play a part in how people communicate.

• Remain authentic and expect the same of others.

• Remember that people may not reply immediately. People participate in different ways, some just

by reading the communication rather than jumping into it.

• Avoid jokes and sarcasm; they often don’t translate well to the online environment.

R E C O G N I Z E T H AT T E X T I S P E R M A N E N T

• Be judicious. What you say online is difficult to retract later.

• Consider your responsibility to the group and to the working environment.

10 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

• Agree on ground rules for text communication (formal or informal; seek clarification whenever

needed, etc) if you are working collaboratively.

AVO I D F L A M I N G : R E S E A RC H B E F O R E YO U R E AC T

• Accept and forgive mistakes.

• Consider your responsibility to the group and to the working environment.

• Seek clarification before reacting.

• Ask your supervisor for guidance.*

R E S P E C T P R I VAC Y A N D O R I G I N A L I D E A S

• Quote the original author if you are responding to a specific point made by someone else.

• Ask the author of an email for permission before forwarding the communication.

* Sometimes, online behavior can appear so disrespectful and even hostile that it requires

attention and follow up. In this case, let your supervisor know right away so that the right

resources can be called upon to help.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Communicating Online: Netiquette by UBC Centre for Teaching,

Learning and Technology – CC: BY-SA 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 11

http://ctlt.ubc.ca/distance-learning/learner-support/communicating-online-netiquette/

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

1 . 4 M E M O R A N D U M S

A memo (or memorandum, meaning “reminder”) is normally used for communicating policies,

procedures, or related official business within an organization. It is often written from a one-to-all

perspective (like mass communication), broadcasting a message to an audience, rather than a one-

on-one, interpersonal communication. It may also be used to update a team on activities for a given

project, or to inform a specific group within a company of an event, action, or observance.

M E M O P U R P O S E

A memo’s purpose is often to inform, but it occasionally includes an element of persuasion or a

call to action. All organizations have informal and formal communication networks. The unofficial,

informal communication network within an organization is often called the grapevine, and it is often

characterized by rumor, gossip, and innuendo. On the grapevine, one person may hear that someone

else is going to be laid off and start passing the news around. Rumors change and transform as they

are passed from person to person, and before you know it, the word is that they are shutting down

your entire department.

One effective way to address informal, unofficial speculation is to spell out clearly for all employees

what is going on with a particular issue. If budget cuts are a concern, then it may be wise to send

a memo explaining the changes that are imminent. If a company wants employees to take action,

they may also issue a memorandum. For example, on February 13, 2009, upper management at the

Panasonic Corporation issued a declaration that all employees should buy at least $1,600 worth of

Panasonic products. The company president noted that if everyone supported the company with

purchases, it would benefit all.1

While memos do not normally include a call to action that requires personal spending, they

often represent the business or organization’s interests. They may also include statements that align

business and employee interest, and underscore common ground and benefit.

M E M O F O R M AT

A memo has a header that clearly indicates who sent it and who the intended recipients are. Pay

particular attention to the title of the individual(s) in this section. Date and subject lines are also

present, followed by a message that contains a declaration, a discussion, and a summary.

In a standard writing format, we might expect to see an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. All

these are present in a memo, and each part has a clear purpose. The declaration in the opening uses

a declarative sentence to announce the main topic. The discussion elaborates or lists major points

1. Lewis, L. (2009, February 13). Panasonic orders staff to buy £1,000 in products. Retrieved from http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/

markets/japan/article5723942.ece

12 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

associated with the topic, and the conclusion serves as a summary. Figure 2 provides a sample memo

using the format explained above.

Figure 2. Sample memo (click image for an accessible PDF)

F I V E T I P S F O R E F F E C T I V E B U S I N E S S M E M O S

AU D I E N C E O R I E N TAT I O N

Always consider the audience and their needs when preparing a memo. An acronym or abbreviation

that is known to management may not be known by all the employees of the organization, and

if the memo is to be posted and distributed within the organization, the goal is clear and concise

communication at all levels with no ambiguity.

P RO F E S S I O N A L , F O R M A L TO N E

Memos are often announcements, and the person sending the memo speaks for a part or all of the

organization. While it may contain a request for feedback, the announcement itself is linear, from

the organization to the employees. The memo may have legal standing as it often reflects policies or

procedures, and may reference an existing or new policy in the employee manual, for example.

S U B J E C T E M P H A S I S

The subject is normally declared in the subject line and should be clear and concise. If the memo is

TECHNICAL WRITING 13

http://coccoer.pressbooks.com/files/2015/10/Memorandum.pdf

announcing the observance of a holiday, for example, the specific holiday should be named in the

subject line—for example, use “Thanksgiving weekend schedule” rather than “holiday observance.”

D I R E C T F O R M AT

Some written business communication allows for a choice between direct and indirect formats, but

memorandums are always direct. The purpose is clearly announced.

O B J E C T I V I T Y

Memos are a place for just the facts, and should have an objective tone without personal bias,

preference, or interest on display. Avoid subjectivity.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from the following sources:

• Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

• Professional Writing by Saylor Academy – CC: BY 3.0

14 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

http://coccoer.pressbooks.com/files/2015/10/SampleLetter.pdf

1 . 5 L E T T E R S

Letters are usually brief messages (one to two pages) sent to recipients that are often outside the

organization. They are often printed on letterhead paper and represent the business or organization.

While e-mail and text messages may be used more frequently today, the effective business letter

remains a common form of written communication. It can serve to introduce you to a potential

employer, announce a product or service, or even serve to communicate feelings and emotions. We’ll

examine the basic outline of a letter and then focus on specific products or, if for a college course,

writing assignments.

All letters have expectations in terms of language and format. The audience or readers may have

their own ideas of what constitutes a specific type of letter, and your organization may have its

own format and requirements. This chapter outlines common elements across letters, and attention

should be directed to the expectations associated with your particular writing assignment. There are

many types of letters, and many adaptations in terms of form and content, but in this chapter, we

discuss the fifteen elements of a traditional block-style letter. Letters may serve to introduce your

skills and qualifications to prospective employers, deliver important or specific information, or serve

as documentation of an event or decision. Figure 3 demonstrates a cover letter that might introduce a

technical report to its recipient.

Figure 3. Sample cover letter (click image for an accessible PDF)

TECHNICAL WRITING 15

S T R AT E G I E S F O R E F F E C T I V E L E T T E R S

Remember that a letter has five main areas:

1. The heading, which names the recipient, often including address and date

2. The introduction, which establishes the purpose

3. The body, which articulates the message

4. The conclusion, which restates the main point and may include a call to action

5. The signature line, which sometimes includes the contact information

Always remember that letters represent you and your company in your absence. In order to

communicate effectively and project a positive image, remember that

• your language should be clear, concise, specific, and respectful;

• each word should contribute to your purpose;

16 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

• each paragraph should focus on one idea;

• the parts of the letter should form a complete message;

• the letter should be free of errors.

L E T T E R S W I T H S P E C I F I C P U R P O S E S

Cover letters. When you send a report or some other document to your supervisor, send it with a

cover letter that briefly explains the purpose of the report and your major findings. Although your

supervisor may have authorized the project and received periodic updates from you, s/he probably

has many other employees and projects going and would benefit from a reminder about your work.

Letters of inquiry. You may want to request information about a company or organization such as

whether they anticipate job openings in the near future or whether they fund grant proposals from

non-profit groups. In this case, you would send a letter of inquiry, asking for additional information.

As with most business letters, keep your request brief, introducing yourself in the opening paragraph

and then clearly stating your purpose and/or request in the second paragraph. If you need very

specific information, consider placing your requests in list form for clarity. Conclude in a friendly

way that shows appreciation for the help you will receive.

Job application letters. Whether responding to job announcements online or on paper, you are

likely to write a job application letter introducing yourself and your skills to a potential employer.

This letter often sets a first impression of you, so demonstrate professionalism in your format,

language use, and proofreading of your work. Depending on the type of job you are seeking,

application letters will vary in length and content. In business, letters are typically no more than

one page and simply highlight skills and qualifications that appear in an accompanying resume. In

education, letters are typically more fully developed and contain a more detailed discussion of the

applicant’s experience and how that experience can benefit the institution. These letters provide

information that is not necessarily evident in an enclosed resume or curriculum vitae.

Follow-up letters. Any time you have made a request of someone, write a follow-up letter

expressing your appreciation for the time your letter-recipient has taken to respond to your needs

or consider your job application. If you have had a job interview, the follow-up letter thanking the

interviewer for his/her time is especially important for demonstrating your professionalism and

attention to detail.

Letters within the professional context may take on many other purposes, but these four types of

letters are some of the most common that you will encounter. For additional examples of professional

letters, take a look at the sample letters provided by David McMurrey in his online textbook on

technical writing: https://www.prismnet.com/~hcexres/textbook/models.html

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from the following sources:

• Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

• Professional Writing by Saylor Academy – CC: BY 3.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 17

https://www.prismnet.com/~hcexres/textbook/models.html

http://www.prismnet.com/~hcexres/itcm/planners/aud_plan.html

2. AUDIENCE ANALYSIS

The audience of a technical writing—or any piece of writing for that matter—is the intended or

potential reader or readers. For most technical writers, this is the most important consideration in

planning, writing, and reviewing a document. You “adapt” your writing to meet the needs, interests,

and background of the readers who will be reading your writing. In reality, the lack of audience

analysis and adaptation is one of the root causes of most of the problems you find in professional,

technical documents—particularly instructions where it surfaces most glaringly.

Note: Once you’ve read this chapter on audiences, try using the audience planner. You fill in blanks

with answers to questions about your audience and then e-mail it to yourself and, optionally, to your

instructor. Use the audience planner for any writing project as a way of getting yourself to think about

your audience in detail.

Chapter Attribution Information

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

2 . 1 T Y P E S O F AU D I E N C E S

One of the first things to do when you analyze an audience is to identify its type (or types—it’s rarely

just one type). The common division of audiences into categories is as follows:

• Experts: These are the people who know the business or organization (and possibly the theory

and the product) inside and out. They designed it, they tested it, they know everything about it.

Often, they have advanced degrees and operate in academic settings or in research and

development areas of the government and technology worlds.

• Technicians: These are the people who build, operate, maintain, and repair the items that the

experts design and theorize about. Theirs is a highly technical knowledge as well, but of a more

practical nature.

• Executives: These are the people who make business, economic, administrative, legal,

governmental, political decisions about the products of the experts and technicians. Executives are

likely to have as little technical knowledge about the subject as nonspecialists. For many of you,

this will be the primary audience.

• Nonspecialists: These readers have the least technical knowledge of all. They want to use the new

product to accomplish their tasks; they want to understand the new power technology enough to

know whether to vote for or against it in the upcoming bond election. Or, they may just be curious

about a specific technical matter and want to learn about it—but for no specific, practical reason.

Chances are, these readers will represent your secondary audience.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 21

2 . 2 AU D I E N C E A N A LY S I S

It’s important to determine which of the four categories just discussed represent your potential

audience(s), but that’s not the end of it. Audiences, regardless of category, must also be analyzed in

terms of characteristics such as the following:

• Background—knowledge, experience, training: One of your most important concerns is just

how much knowledge, experience, or training you can expect in your readers. If you expect some

of your readers to lack certain background, do you automatically supply it in your document?

Consider an example: imagine you are writing a guide to using a software product that runs under

Microsoft Windows. How much can you expect your readers to know about Windows? If some are

likely to know little about Windows, should you provide that information? If you say no, then you

run the risk of customers getting frustrated with your product. If you say yes to adding

background information on Windows, you increase your work effort and add to the page count of

the document (and thus to the cost). Obviously, there’s no easy answer to this question—part of the

answer may involve just how small a segment of the audience needs that background information.

• Needs and interests: To plan your document, you need to know what your audience is going to

expect from that document. Imagine how readers will want to use your document; what they will

demand from it. For example, imagine you are writing a manual on how to use a new

smartphone—what are your readers going to expect to find in it? Imagine you are under contract

to write a background report on global warming for a national real estate association—what do

readers want to read about; and, equally important, what do they not want to read about?

• Other demographic characteristics: And of course there are many other characteristics about

your readers that might have an influence on how you should design and write your

document—for example, age groups, type of residence, area of residence, gender, political

preferences, and so on.

Audience analysis can get complicated by at least two other factors: mixed audience types for one

document, wide variability within audience, and unknown audiences.

• More than one audience: You are likely to find that your report is for more than one audience.

For example, it may be seen by technical people (experts and technicians) and administrative

people (executives). What should you do in this case? You can either write all the sections so that all

the audiences of your document can understand them. Or you can write each section strictly for

the audience that would be interested in it, then use headings and section introductions to alert

your audience about where to find relevant information in your report.

22 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

• Wide variability in an audience: You may realize that, although you have an audience that fits

into only one category, its background varies widely. This is a tough one—if you write to the

lowest common denominator of reader, you are likely to end up with a cumbersome, tedious

book-like report that will turn off the majority of readers. However, if you don’t write to that

lowest level, you lose that segment of your readers. What should you do? Most writers go for the

majority of readers and sacrifice that minority that needs more help. Others put the supplemental

information in appendixes or insert cross-references to beginners’ books.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 23

2 . 3 A DA P T I N G YO U R W R I T I N G TO M E E T YO U R AU D I E N C E ’ S N E E D S

Once you’ve analyzed your audience, how do you use this information? How do you keep from

writing something that may potentially still be incomprehensible or useless to your readers? Draft

your document with your audience’s needs in mind, but remember that writing can be refined over

many drafts. With each subsequent draft, think more carefully about your readers, and revise and

edit your document so that you make technical information more understandable for nonspecialist

audiences. The lists below are some of the ways you can adapt your writing to your audience’s needs.

The following “controls” have mostly to do with making technical information more

understandable for nonspecialist audiences, and they refer to information you will refine as you begin

to put your final report together. However, it is a good idea to be aware of your audience’s needs even

in the early stages of your report drafting.

P ROV I D E T H E R I G H T I N F O R M AT I O N

Add information readers need to understand your document. Check to see whether certain key

information is missing—for example, a critical series of steps from a set of instructions; important

background that helps beginners understand the main discussion; definition of key terms.

Omit information your readers do not need. Unnecessary information can also confuse and

frustrate readers—after all, it’s there so they feel obligated to read it. For example, you can probably

chop theoretical discussion from basic instructions.

Change the level of the information you currently have. You may have the right information but

it may be “pitched” at too high or too low a technical level. It may be pitched at the wrong kind of

audience—for example, at an expert audience rather than a technician audience. This happens most

often when product-design notes are passed off as instructions.

Add examples to help readers understand. Examples are one of the most powerful ways to

connect with audiences, particularly in instructions. Even in a non-instructional text, for example,

when you are trying to explain a technical concept, examples are a major help—analogies in particular.

Change the level of your examples. You may be using examples but the technical content or level

may not be appropriate to your readers. Homespun examples may not be useful to experts; highly

technical ones may totally miss your nonspecialist readers.

G U I D E YO U R R E A D E R T H RO U G H YO U R W R I T I N G

Change the organization of your information. Sometimes, you can have all the right information

but arrange it in the wrong way. For example, there can be too much background information up

front (or too little) such that certain readers get lost. Sometimes, background information needs to be

24 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

consolidated into the main information—for example, in instructions it’s sometimes better to feed in

chunks of background at the points where they are immediately needed.

Strengthen transitions. It may be difficult for readers, particularly nonspecialists, to see the

connections between the main sections of your report, between individual paragraphs, and sometimes

even between individual sentences. You can make these connections much clearer by adding transition

words and by echoing key words more accurately. Words like “therefore,” “for example,” “however” are

transition words—they indicate the logic connecting the previous thought to the upcoming thought.

You can also strengthen transitions by carefully echoing the same key words. A report describing new

software for architects might use the word software several times on the same page or even in the

same paragraph. In technical prose, it’s not a good idea to vary word choice—use the same words so

that people don’t get any more confused than they may already be.

Write stronger introductions—both for the whole document and for major sections. People

seem to read with more confidence and understanding when they have the “big picture”—a view of

what’s coming, and how it relates to what they’ve just read. Therefore, write a strong introduction

to the entire document—one that makes clear the topic, purpose, audience, and contents of that

document. And for each major section within your document, use mini-introductions that indicate at

least the topic of the section and give an overview of the subtopics to be covered in that section.

Create topic sentences for paragraphs and paragraph groups. It can help readers immensely to

give them an idea of the topic and purpose of a section (a group of paragraphs) and in particular to give

them an overview of the subtopics about to be covered. Road maps help when you’re in a different

state!

C R A F T E F F E C T I V E S E N T E N C E S

Change sentence style and length. How you write—down at the individual sentence level—can

make a big difference too. In instructions, for example, using imperative voice and “you” phrasing

is vastly more understandable than the passive voice or third-personal phrasing. For some reason,

personalizing your writing style and making it more relaxed and informal can make it more accessible

and understandable. Passive, person-less writing is harder to read—put people and action in your

writing. Similarly, go for active verbs as opposed to be verb phrasing. All of this makes your writing

more direct and immediate—readers don’t have to dig for it. And obviously, sentence length matters

as well. An average of somewhere between 15 and 25 words per sentence is about right; sentences

over 30 words are to be mistrusted.

Edit for sentence clarity and economy. This is closely related to the previous “control” but

deserves its own spot. Often, writing style can be so wordy that it is hard or frustrating to read. When

you revise your rough drafts, put them on a diet—go through a draft line by line trying to reduce the

overall word, page, or line count by 20 percent. Try it as an experiment and see how you do. You’ll

find a lot of fussy, unnecessary detail and inflated phrasing you can chop out.

M A K E YO U R D O C U M E N T V I S UA L LY A P P E A L I N G

Add and vary graphics. For nonspecialist audiences, you may want to use more graphics—and

simpler ones at that. Graphics for specialists are more detailed, more technical. In technical

documents for nonspecialists, there also tend to be more “decorative” graphics—ones that are

attractive but serve no strict informative or persuasive purpose at all.

Break text up or consolidate text into meaningful, usable chunks. For nonspecialist readers, you

TECHNICAL WRITING 25

may need to have shorter paragraphs. Maybe a 6- to 8-line paragraph is the usual maximum. Notice

how much longer paragraphs are in technical documents written for specialists.

Add cross-references to important information. In technical information, you can help

nonspecialist readers by pointing them to background sources. If you can’t fully explain a topic on the

spot, point to a section or chapter where it is.

Use headings and lists. Readers can be intimidated by big dense paragraphs of writing, uncut by

anything other than a blank line now and then. Search your rough drafts for ways to incorporate

headings—look for changes in topic or subtopic. Search your writing for listings of things—these can

be made into vertical lists. Look for paired listings such as terms and their definitions—these can

be made into two-column lists. Of course, be careful not to force this special formatting, and don’t

overdo it.

Use special typography, and work with margins, line length, line spacing, type size, and type

style. For nonspecialist readers, you can do things like making the lines shorter (bringing in the

margins), using larger type sizes, and other such tactics. Typically, sans-serif fonts, such as Ariel, are

useful for online readers. Serif fonts, such as Time New Roman, are useful for print texts.

By now you should be able to see that many of the decisions you make as a technical writer

depend on who will read your report. From content, to language, to layout, every aspect of your

communication must keep your readers’ needs in mind.

We will spend time later in this book expanding our discussion of audience as well as document

design–an important consideration that can help tremendously in making your document

professional and easy to read.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

26 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

3. PROPOSALS

This chapter focuses on the proposal—the kind of document that gets you or your organization

approved or hired to complete a project. It is your opportunity to pitch your idea for change (often

times an improvement) within an organization. Proposals often demonstrate that a problem exists

that needs attention and address a very specific audience with the authority to move your suggestions

forward.

Chapter Attribution Information

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

3 . 1 S O M E P R E L I M I N A R I E S

In a technical writing course, the proposal assignment is an opportunity for you to present an idea

to a specific, named audience about an idea you have to improve a certain aspect of that company,

organization, center, or other business. Whatever topic you choose, you must be able to conduct

thorough research that you will integrate into your final report.

To begin planning a proposal, remember the basic definition: a proposal is an offer or bid to

complete a project for someone. Proposals may contain other elements—technical background,

recommendations, results of surveys, information about feasibility, and so on. But what makes a

proposal a proposal is that it asks the audience to approve, fund, or grant permission to do the

proposed project.

A proposal should contain information that would enable the audience of that proposal to decide

whether to approve the project, to approve or hire you to do the work, or both. To write a successful

proposal, put yourself in the place of your audience—the recipient of the proposal—and think about

what sorts of information that person would need in order to feel confident having you complete the

project.

It is easy to confuse proposals with other kinds of documents in technical writing. Imagine that you

have a terrific idea for installing some new technology where you work, and you write up a document

explaining how it work, showing the benefits, and then urging management to install it. Is that a

proposal? All by itself, this would not be a complete proposal. It would be more like a feasibility report,

which studies the merits of a project and then recommends for or against it. However, all it would take

to make this document a proposal would be to add elements that ask management for approval for

you to go ahead with the project. Additionally, for some technical writing classes offered in college,

one of those elements may be scholarly research. Check with your instructor to see if this is the case.

Certainly, some writers of proposals must sell the projects they propose, but in all cases, proposals

must sell the writer (or the writer’s organization) as the one to complete the project.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 29

3 . 2 T Y P E S O F P RO P O S A L S

Consider the situations in which proposals occur. A company may send out a public announcement

requesting proposals for a specific project. This public announcement—called a request for proposals

(RFP)—could be issued through websites, emails, social media, newspapers, or trade journals. Firms

or individuals interested in the project would then write proposals in which they summarize their

qualifications, project schedules and costs, and discuss their approach to the project. The recipient of

all these proposals would then evaluate them, select the best candidate, and then work up a contract.

But proposals also come about much less formally. Imagine that you are interested in doing a

project at work (for example, investigating the merits of bringing in some new technology to increase

productivity). Imagine that you met with your supervisor and tried to convince her of this. She might

respond by saying, “Write me a proposal and I’ll present it to upper management.” This is more like

the kind of proposal you will write in a technical writing course.

Most proposals can be divided into several categories:

• Internal, external: A proposal to someone within your organization (a business, a government

agency, etc.) is an internal proposal. With internal proposals, you may not have to include certain

sections (such as qualifications) or as much information in them. An external proposal is one

written from one separate, independent organization or individual to another such entity. The

typical example is the independent consultant proposing to do a project for another firm. This

kind of proposal may be solicited or unsolicited, as explained below.

• Solicited, unsolicited: A solicited proposal is one in which the recipient has requested the proposal.

Typically, a company will send out requests for proposals (RFPs) through the mail or publish them

in some news source. But proposals can be solicited on a very local level: for example, you could be

explaining to your boss what a great thing it would be to install a new technology in the office;

your boss might get interested and ask you to write up a proposal that offered to do a formal study

of the idea. Unsolicited proposals are those in which the recipient has not requested proposals.

With unsolicited proposals, you sometimes must convince the recipient that a problem or need

exists before you can begin the main part of the proposal.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

30 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

3 . 3 T Y P I C A L S C E N A R I O S F O R T H E P RO P O S A L

Many of you may have never given much thought to producing a technical report based on a viable

proposal. Here are some sample proposal ideas to ponder:

• Imagine that a company has a problem or wants to make some sort of improvement. The company

sends out a request for proposals; you receive one and respond with a proposal. You offer to come

in, investigate, interview, make recommendations—and present it all in the form of a report.

• An organization wants a seminar in your expertise. You write a proposal to give the

seminar—included in the package deal is a guide or handbook that the people attending the

seminar will receive.

• An agency has just started using a new online data system, but the user’s manual is technically

complex and difficult to read. You receive a request for proposals from this agency to write a

simplified guide or startup guide.

• Imagine that a nonprofit organization focused on a particular issue wants an consultant to write a

handbook or guide for its membership. This document will present information on the issue in a

way that the members can understand.

Not all research topics are appropriate for technical writing. Topics that are based on values and

beliefs do not fall into the category of technical. Historical and literary topics do not qualify.

If your technical writing course requires that you integrate scholarly research into your final report,

choose a topic for which you can readily find such material. While interviews and other first-hand

sources are often valuable to a report, one that relies heavily on these sources may not meet the

outcomes of your particular course.

Always check with your instructor about any topic ideas you have before starting on your project.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 31

3 . 4 C O M M O N S E C T I O N S I N P RO P O S A L S

The following provides a review of the sections you will commonly find in proposals. Do not assume

that each one of them has to be in the actual proposal you write, nor that they have to be in the order

they are presented here. Refer to the assignment sheet provided by your instructor and consider other

kinds of information unique to your topic that should be included in your particular proposal.

Introduction. Plan the introduction to your proposal carefully. Make sure it does all of the

following things (but not necessarily in this order) that apply to your particular proposal:

• Indicate that the content of the memo is a proposal for a specific project.

• Develop at least one brief motivating statement that will encourage the recipient to read on and to

consider approving the project (especially if it is an unsolicited or competitive proposal).

• Give an overview of the contents of the proposal.

Background on the problem, opportunity, or situation. Often occurring just after the introduction,

the background section discusses what has brought about the need for the project—what problem,

what opportunity exists for improving things, what the basic situation is. For example, management

of a chain of day care centers may need to ensure that all employees know CPR because of new state

mandates requiring it, or an owner of pine timber land in eastern Oregon may want to get the land

producing saleable timber without destroying the environment.

While the named audience of the proposal may know the problem very well, writing the

background section is useful in demonstrating your particular view of the problem. Also, if the the

proposal is unsolicited, a background section is almost a requirement—you will probably need to

convince the audience that the problem or opportunity exists and that it should be addressed.

Benefits and feasibility of the proposed project. Most proposals briefly discuss the advantages or

benefits of completing the proposed project. This acts as a type of argument in favor of approving the

project. Also, some proposals discuss the likelihood of the project’s success. In an unsolicited proposal,

this section is especially important—you are trying to “sell” the audience on the project.

Description of the proposed work (results of the project). Most proposals must describe the

finished product of the proposed project. In a technical writing course, that means describing the

written document you propose to write, its audience and purpose; providing an outline; and

discussing such things as its length, graphics, binding, and so forth. In the scenario you define, there

may be other work such as conducting training seminars or providing an ongoing service. At this

early stage, you might not know all that it will take to complete your project, but you should at least

have an idea of some of the steps required.

Method, procedure, theory. In some proposals, you will need to explain how you will go about

completing the proposed work. This acts as an additional persuasive element; it shows the audience

32 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

you have a sound, thoughtful approach to the project. Also, it serves to demonstrate that you have the

knowledge of the field to complete the project.

Schedule. Most proposals contain a section that shows not only the projected completion date but

also key milestones for the project. If you are doing a large project spreading over many months,

the timeline would also show dates on which you would deliver progress reports. If you cannot cite

specific dates, cite amounts of time for each phase of the project.

Costs, resources required. Most proposals also contain a section detailing the costs of the project,

whether internal or external. With external projects, you may need to list your hourly rates, projected

hours, costs of equipment and supplies, and so forth, and then calculate the total cost of the complete

project. Internal projects, of course, are not free, so you should still list the project costs: hours you

will need to complete the project, equipment and supplies you will be using, assistance from other

people in the organization, and so on.

Conclusions. The final paragraph or section of the proposal should bring readers back to a focus

on the positive aspects of the project. In the final section, you can urge them to contact you to work

out the details of the project, remind them of the benefits of doing the project, and maybe make one

last argument for you or your organization as the right choice for the project.

Special project-specific sections. Remember that the preceding sections are typical or common

in written proposals, not absolute requirements. Always ask yourself what else might your audience

need to understand the project, the need for it, the benefits arising from it, your role in it, and your

qualifications to do it. What else do they need to see in order to approve the project and to approve

you to do it?

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 33

3 . 5 S P E C I A L A S S I G N M E N T R E Q U I R E M E N T S

Depending on the writing situation, your proposal may need to include other specialized elements as

well. Your supervisor might ask you to include in your proposal any of the following:

Audience: Describe the audience of the final report (which may be different than the audience for

the proposal). You may need to discuss for whom the report is designed, their titles and jobs, their

technical background, and their ability to understand the report.

Information sources: List information sources; make sure you know that there is adequate

information for your topic; list citations for specific books, articles, reference works, other kinds of

sources that you think will contribute to your report.

Graphics: List the graphics you think your report will need according to their type and their

content. (If you cannot think of any your report would need, you may not have a good topic—do some

brainstorming with your instructor.)

Outline: Include an outline of the topics and subtopics you think you will cover in your report.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

34 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

3 . 6 P RO P O S A L S A N D AU D I E N C E

Remember that, in a technical writing course, the proposal assignment serves several purposes: (1)

it gives you some experience in writing a proposal; (2) it gets you started planning your major

assignment; (3) it gives your instructor a chance to work with you on your project, to make sure you

have a viable topic. For the second and third reasons, you need to include specific elements in your

proposal (as noted in your assignment sheet) some of which may not seem appropriate in a real-world

proposal.

The proposal is often the beginning of a weeks-long research and writing process that goes through

many stages until it gets to the end point: the technical report. In this case, you only submit the

proposal once during this process. After that, you may write and submit different types of documents:

a progress report, an outline, an annotated bibliography, a graphics draft, a report draft, and a final

report. Be careful to use the term “proposal” only if you are specifically referring to the proposal stage

of your project.

Another point to keep in mind relates to the audience for different kinds of documents that may be

produced for the same project. Consider the example of a proposal written to a supervisor at a solar

power company suggesting the creation of a policy manual for residential solar panel installers. The

proposal’s audience may be an executive, whose knowledge of the technicalities may be very broad.

Let’s imagine the executive approves the proposal and requests completion of the manual, which will

be produced well after the proposal. The manual’s audience is the technicians, who may have more

specialized knowledge than the executive. The content and language used for these two different

audiences will need to be adjusted to fit the writing situation. (For more on this, review the chapter

on Audience Analysis.)

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 35

3 . 7 R E V I S I O N C H E C K L I S T F O R P RO P O S A L S

As you review and revise your proposal, keep the following in mind:

• Use the right format. Check with your instructor to insure you are using the format requested and

look at any samples provided.

• Write a clear summary of (or introduction to) your proposal topic.

• Identify exactly what you are proposing to do.

• Ensure that a report—a written document—is somehow involved in the project you are proposing

to do if that is what your instructor has assigned.

• Ensure that the sections of your proposal are in a logical, natural order and that you use sub-

headers and bullets (and any other formatting styles) correctly.

• Address the proposal to your named audience—not your instructor.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

36 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

http://textbooks.opensuny.org/the-information-literacy-users-guide-an-open-online-textbook/

4. INFORMATION LITERACY

What does it mean to be information literate? Simply stated, information literate individuals “know

how to find, evaluate and use information effectively.”1

In college, you typically find, evaluate, and use information to satisfy the requirements of an

assignment. Assignments often specify what kind of information you need and what tools you should

use – or avoid – in your research. For example, your professor may specify that you need three

peer-reviewed resources from academic articles and that you should not cite Wikipedia in your final

paper. However, in life beyond college – especially the work world – you may not have that kind of

specific guidance. You need to be information literate in order to plan and perform your own research

efficiently, effectively, and with the needs of your audience in mind.

You might be thinking, “Research? I’ve got that covered. That’s what the Internet is for, right?” In

fact, it is much more than doing a simple search engine query and reviewing the first ten results it

returns. A 2012 study by Project Information Literacy (PIL) interviewed 33 employers and found

that they were dissatisfied with the research skills of recently graduated hires. Employers cited recent

graduates’ over-reliance on online search tools and the first page of results as reasons for their

dissatisfaction. Research performed by recent graduates was too superficial and lacked analysis and

synthesis of multiple types of information from a variety of sources.2

In this chapter, you will learn

• how to identify different information formats;

• where to conduct your research;

• how to search effectively;

• how to evaluate sources you find

1. American Library Association. (1989). Presidential Committee on Information Literacy: Final Report. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/acrl/

publications/whitepapers/presidential.

2. Head, A.J. (2012). Learning Curve: How College Graduates Solve Problems Once They Join the Workforce. (Project Information Literacy

Research Report: The Passage Series). Retrieved from http://projectinfolit.org/images/pdfs/

pil_fall2012_workplacestudy_fullreport_revised.pdf.

Chapter Attribution Information

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from the following sources:

• Information Formats derived from The Information Literacy User’s Guide edited by Greg Bobish

and Trudi Jacobson, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

• Information Formats: Primary and Secondary Information Sources derived from Primary,

Secondary and Tertiary Sources by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0

• Information Formats: Popular, Professional, and Scholarly Information derived from Magazines,

Trade Journals, and Scholarly Journals by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0

• The Information Timeline derived from Information Timeline by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-

NC-SA 4.0

• The Research Cycle derived from A Cycle of Revolving Research by UC Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA

3.0

• Research Tools derived from The Information Literacy User’s Guide edited by Greg Bobish and

Trudi Jacobson, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

• Search Strategies: Develop Effective Keywords derived from The Information Literacy User’s

Guide edited by Greg Bobish and Trudi Jacobson, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

• Search Strategies: Advanced Search Techniques derived from Database Search Tips: Boolean

Operators by MIT Libraries, CC: BY-NC 2.0

• Evaluate Sources derived from Evaluating Information by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA

4.0

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/

http://www.lib.vt.edu/help/research/primary-secondary-tertiary.html

http://www.lib.vt.edu/help/research/types-sources.html

http://www.lib.vt.edu/help/research/information-timeline.html

http://www.lib.uci.edu/uc-research-tutorial/info_8.html

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/

http://textbooks.opensuny.org/the-information-literacy-users-guide-an-open-online-textbook/

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/

http://textbooks.opensuny.org/the-information-literacy-users-guide-an-open-online-textbook/

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/

http://info-skills.lib.vt.edu/evaluating_info/index.html

https://www.lib.ncsu.edu/tutorials/peerreview/

4 . 1 I N F O R M AT I O N F O R M AT S

Traditionally, information has been organized in different formats, usually because of the time it takes

to gather and publish the information. For example, the purpose of news reporting is to inform the

public about the basic facts of an event. This information needs to be disseminated quickly, so it is

published daily in print, online, on broadcast television, and radio media.

Today, publication of information in traditional formats continues as well as in constantly evolving

formats on the Internet. These new information formats can include electronic journals, e-books,

news websites, blogs, Twitter, Facebook, and other social media sites. The coexistence of all of these

information formats is messy and chaotic, and the process for finding relevant information is not

always clear.

One way to make some sense out of the current information universe is to understand thoroughly

traditional information formats. You can then understand the concepts inherent in the information

formats found online. There are some direct correlations such as books and journal articles, but there

are also some newer formats like tweets that didn’t exist until recently.

P R I M A R Y A N D S E C O N DA R Y I N F O R M AT I O N S O U RC E S

Primary sources allow researchers to get as close as possible to original ideas, events, and empirical

research as possible. Such sources may include creative works, first hand or contemporary accounts

of events, and the publication of the results of empirical observations or research.

Examples of primary sources are interviews, letters, emails, Tweets, Facebook posts, photographs,

speeches, newspaper or magazine articles written at the time of an event, works of literature, lab

notes, field research, and published scientific research.

Secondary sources analyze, review, or summarize information in primary resources or other

secondary resources. Even sources presenting facts or descriptions about events are secondary unless

they are based on direct participation or observation. Secondary sources analyze the primary sources.

Examples of secondary sources are journal articles, books, literature reviews, literary criticism,

meta-analyses of scientific studies, documentaries, biographies, and textbooks.

Sometimes the line between primary and secondary sources blurs. For example, although

newspapers and news websites contain primary source material, they also contain secondary source

material. For example, an article published on November 6, 2012 about the results of the US

presidential election would be a primary source, because it was written on the day of the event.

However, an article published in the same paper two weeks later analyzing how the successful

candidate raised money for his campaign would be a secondary source.

Table 1. Examples of primary and secondary sources for technical writing

Primary Secondary

TECHNICAL WRITING 39

Interview with subject matter expert Documentary on an issue or problem

Survey data News article about scientific study

Published scientific study Literature review on a research topic

P O P U L A R , P RO F E S S I O N A L , A N D S C H O L A R LY I N F O R M AT I O N

At some point in your college career, you will be asked to find peer-reviewed resources on your

research topic. Your professor may explain that these appear in scholarly journals. You may wonder

what makes a scholarly journal article different from an article in a magazine, like National Geographic

or Sports Illustrated.

Popular magazines like People, Sports Illustrated, and Rolling Stone can be good sources for articles

on recent events or pop-culture topics, while magazines like Harper’s, Scientific American, and The

New Republic will offer more in-depth articles on a wider range of subjects. The audience for these

publications are readers who, although not experts, are knowledgeable about the issues presented.

Professional journals, also called trade journals, address an audience of professionals in a specific

discipline or field. They report news and trends in a field, but not original research. They may also

provide product or service reviews, job listings, and advertisements.

Scholarly journals provide articles of interest to experts or researchers in a discipline. An editorial

board of respected scholars in a discipline (peers of the authors) reviews all articles submitted to

a journal. They decide if the article provides a noteworthy contribution to the field and should be

published. Scholarly journals contain few or no advertisements. Scholarly journal articles will include

references of works cited and may also have footnotes or endnotes, all of which rarely appear in

popular or professional publications.

Peer review is a widely accepted indicator of quality scholarship in a given discipline or field.

Peer-reviewed (or refereed) journals are scholarly journals that only publish articles that have passed

through this review process.

You can better understand peer-review by watching the video “Peer Review in 3 Minutes.”

Video credit: Peer Review in 3 Minutes by NCSU Libraries, CC:

BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

Table 2. Differences among magazines, professional journals, and scholarly journals

40 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/

Magazine Professional journal Academic journal

Audience • General public • People employed in a field • Researchers, scholars, experts

Bibliography • No • Sometimes • Yes

Article Characteristics
(length, depth,
structure)

• Overview

• Current events

• General interest
articles

• Articles will be of interest to
those working in that field

• Purpose will be to offer advice
and tips to those in the trade

• Long and narrowly focused

• Specialized vocabulary

• Article structure will usually contain abstract, literature
review, methodology, results, conclusion, references

Review policy • Magazine editor
• Magazine editor and possibly a

board
• Editorial board/ scholars in the field

• Peer-reviewed

Author
• Journalist or

specialist
• Someone working in the field • Researcher/expert in the field

Appearance

• Glossy

• Many graphics

• Many
advertisements

• Glossy

• Advertising specific to that
trade

• Lengthy articles

• Often includes charts, graphs, statistics

• Little or no advertising

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from the following sources:

• Information Formats derived from The Information Literacy User’s Guide edited by Greg Bobish

and Trudi Jacobson, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

• Information Formats: Primary and Secondary Information Sources derived from Primary,

Secondary and Tertiary Sources by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0

• Information Formats: Popular, Professional, and Scholarly Information derived from Magazines,

Trade Journals, and Scholarly Journals by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 41

https://pressbooks.com/app/uploads/sites/41773/2016/08/natGeoCover.jpg

https://pressbooks.com/app/uploads/sites/41773/2016/08/foodTechCover.jpg

https://pressbooks.com/app/uploads/sites/41773/2016/08/jMorphCover.jpg

http://textbooks.opensuny.org/the-information-literacy-users-guide-an-open-online-textbook/

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/

http://www.lib.vt.edu/help/research/primary-secondary-tertiary.html

http://www.lib.vt.edu/help/research/types-sources.html

http://www.lib.vt.edu/help/research/information-timeline.html

4 . 2 T H E I N F O R M AT I O N T I M E L I N E

Another difference in popular, professional, and scholarly sources lies in when information appears

in these types of sources. Information about an event or issue appears in publications according to

a predictable pattern known as the information timeline. Familiarity with the information timeline

can help you best plan your research topics and where to search for information. For example, it

typically takes several months to years for information about an event or issue to appear in scholarly

publications. If you choose a topic that is very recent, you may have to rely more heavily on news

media, popular magazines, and primary sources (such as interviews you conduct) for your research.

Table 3. The information timeline and typical sources.

Time: Day of event Days later Weeks later Months later Year(s) later

Sources
Television,
radio, web

Newspapers, TV, radio, web
Popular and mass market
magazines

Professional and
scholarly journals

Scholarly journals, books,
conference proceedings

Reference sources such as
encyclopedias

Type of
information

General: who,
what, where
(usually not
why)

Varies, some articles include
analysis, statistics,
photographs, editorials,
opinions

Still in reporting stage,
general, editorial, opinions,
statistics, photographs

Usually no bibliography
at this stage

Research results,
detailed and
theoretical
discussion

Bibliography
available at this
stage

In-depth coverage of a topic,
edited compilations of scholarly
articles relating to a topic

General overview giving
factual information

Bibliography available

Locating
tools

Web search
tools, social
networks

Web search tools, newspaper
and periodical databases

Web search tools,
newspaper and periodical
databases

General and
subject-specific
databases

Library catalog, general and
subject-specific databases

Library reference collection

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

The Information Timeline derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central

Oregon Community College, from Information Timeline by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA

4.0

42 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

https://pressbooks.com/app/uploads/sites/41773/2016/08/research_cycle_UClibraries-e1443644704962.jpg

4 . 3 T H E R E S E A RC H C YC L E

Although information publication follows a linear timeline, the research process itself is not linear.

For example, you might start by trying to read scholarly articles, only to discover that you lack the

necessary background knowledge to use a scholarly article effectively. To increase your background

information, you might consult an encyclopedia or a book on your topic. Or, you may encounter

a statement in a newspaper editorial that inspires you to consult the scholarly literature to see if

research supports the statement.

The important thing to remember is that you will probably start your research at different points

and move around among resource types depending on the type of information you need.

Figure 1. The research cycle

Image Credit: A Cycle of Revolving Research by UC Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

The Research Cycle derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central

Oregon Community College, from A Cycle of Revolving Research by UC Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA

3.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 43

http://www.lib.uci.edu/uc-research-tutorial/info_8.html

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/

http://www.lib.uci.edu/uc-research-tutorial/info_8.html

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/

4 . 4 R E S E A RC H TO O L S

DATA B A S E S

Very often, you will want articles on your topic, and the easiest way to find articles is to use a research

database – a specialized search engine for finding articles and other types of content. For example, if

your topic is residential solar power, you can use a research database to look in thousands of journal

titles at once and find the latest scientific and technical research articles – articles that don’t always

show up in your Google searches. Depending on the database you are using, you might also find

videos, images, diagrams, or e-books on your topic, too. Most databases require subscriptions for

access; check with your college, public, or corporate library to see what databases they subscribe to for

you to use. Whether they are subscription-based or free, research databases contain records of journal

articles, documents, book chapters, and other resources and are not tied to the physical items available

at any one library. Many databases provide the full-text of articles and can be searched by keyword,

subject, author, or title. A few databases provide just the citations for articles, but they usually also

provide tools for you to find the full text in another database or request it through interlibrary loan.

Databases are made up of records, and records contain fields, as explained below:

• Records: A record describes one information item (e.g., journal article, book chapter, image, etc.).

• Fields: These are part of the record, and they contain descriptions of specific elements of the

information item such as the title, author, publication date, and subject.

Another aspect of databases to know about is controlled vocabulary. Look for the label subject term,

subject heading or descriptor. Regardless of label, this field contains controlled vocabulary, which are

designated terms or phrases for describing concepts. It’s important because it pulls together all of

the items in that database about one topic. For example, imagine you are searching for information

on community colleges. Different authors may call community colleges by different names: junior

colleges, two-year colleges, or technical colleges. If the controlled vocabulary term in the database you

are searching is “community colleges,” then your one search will pull up all results, regardless of what

term the author uses.

Databases may seem intimidating at first, but you likely use databases in everyday life. For example,

do you store contact information in your phone? If so, you create a record for everyone for whom you

want to store information. In each of those records, you enter descriptions into fields: first and last

name, phone number, email address, and physical address. If you wanted to organize your contacts,

you might put them into groups of “work,” “family,” and “friends.” That would be your controlled

vocabulary for your own database of contacts.

44 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

The image below shows a detailed record for a journal article from a common research database,

Academic Search Premier. The fields and controlled vocabulary are labeled.

Figure 2. Fields and controlled vocabulary

G E N E R A L

Databases that contain resources for many subject areas are referred to as general or multidisciplinary

databases. This means that they are good starting points for research because they allow you to search

a large number of sources from a wide variety of disciplines. Content types in general databases often

include a mix of professional publications, scholarly journals, newspapers, magazines, books, and

multimedia.

Common general databases in academic settings include

• Academic Search Premier

• Academic OneFile

• JSTOR

S P E C I A L I Z E D

Databases devoted to a single subject are known as subject-specific or specialized databases. Often,

TECHNICAL WRITING 45

https://pressbooks.com/app/uploads/sites/41773/2016/08/databases.jpg

they search a smaller number of journals or a specific type of content. Specialized databases can be

very powerful search tools after you have selected a narrow research topic or if you already have a

great deal of expertise in a particular area. They will help you find information you would not find in

a general database. If you are not sure which specialized databases are available for your topic, check

your library’s website for subject guides, or ask a librarian.

Specialized databases may also focus on offering one specific content type like streaming films,

music, images, statistics, or data sets.

Table 4. Examples of specialized databases and their subject focus

Database Subject Focus

PsycInfo Psychology

BioOne Life Sciences

MEDLINE Medicine/health

ARTstor Fine arts images

L I B R A R Y C ATA LO G S

A library catalog is a database that contains all of the items located in a library as well as all of the

items to which the library offers access, either in physical or online format. It allows you to search for

items by title, author, subject, and keyword. Like research databases, library catalogs use controlled

vocabulary to allow for powerful searching using specific terms or phrases.

If you locate a physical item in a catalog, you will need the call number to find the item in the library.

A call number is like a street address for a book; it tells you exactly where the book is on the shelf.

Most academic libraries will use the Library of Congress classification system, and the call numbers

start with letters, followed by a mix of numbers and letters. In addition to helping you find a book,

call numbers group items about a given topic together in a physical place. The image below shows an

example of the location of a call number in a library catalog.

Figure 3. A call number in an online library catalog display

Along with physical items, most libraries also provide access to scholarly e-books, streaming films,

and e-journals via their catalogs. For students and faculty, these resources are usually available from

any computer, meaning you do not have to go to the library and retrieve items from the shelf.

C O N S O RT I A A N D I N T E R L I B R A R Y LOA N

In the course of your research you will almost certainly find yourself in a situation where you have a

citation for a journal article or book that your institution’s library doesn’t have. There is a wealth of

knowledge contained in the resources of academic and public libraries throughout the United States.

Single libraries cannot hope to collect all of the resources available on a topic. Fortunately, libraries

are happy to share their resources and they do this through consortia membership and interlibrary

46 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

https://pressbooks.com/app/uploads/sites/41773/2016/08/callNum.jpg

loan (ILL). Library consortia are groups of libraries that have special agreements with one another to

loan materials to one another’s users. Both academic and public libraries belong to consortia.

Central Oregon Community College (COCC) belongs to a consortium of 37 academic libraries in

the Pacific Northwest called the Orbis Cascade Alliance, which sponsors a shared lending program

called Summit. When you search the COCC Library Catalog, your results will include items from

other Summit institutions, which you can request and have delivered to the COCC campus of your

choice.

Interlibrary loan (ILL) allows you to borrow books, articles and other information resources

regardless of where they are located. If you find an article when searching a database that COCC

doesn’t have full text access to, you can request it through the interlibrary loan program. If you

cannot get a book or DVD from COCC or another Summit library, you could also request it through

interlibrary loan. Interlibrary loan services are available at both academic and public libraries.

G OV E R N M E N T I N F O R M AT I O N

Another important source of information is the government. Official United States government

websites end in .gov and provide a wealth of credible information, including statistics, technical

reports, economic data, scientific and medical research, and, of course, legislative information. Unlike

research databases, government information is typically freely available without a subscription.

USA.gov is a search engine for government information and is a good place to begin your search,

though specialized search tools are also available for many topics. State governments also have their

own websites and search tools that you might find helpful if your topic has a state-specific angle. If

you get lost in searching government information, ask a librarian for help. They usually have special

training and knowledge in navigating government information.

Table 5. Examples of specialized government sources and their subject focus

Specialized Government Source Subject Focus

PubMed Central Medicine/health

ERIC Education

Congress.gov Legislation and the legislative process

E X P E RT S

People are a valuable, though often overlooked, source. This might be particularly appropriate if you

are working on an emerging topic or a topic with local connections.

For personal interviews, there are specific steps you can take to obtain better results. Do some

background work on the topic before contacting the person you hope to interview. The more

familiarity you have with your topic and its terminology, the easier it will be to ask focused questions.

Focused questions are important for effective research. Asking general questions because you think

the specifics might be too detailed rarely leads to the best information. Acknowledge the time and

effort someone is taking to answer your questions, but also realize that people who are passionate

about subjects enjoy sharing what they know. Take the opportunity to ask experts about additional

resources they would recommend.

For a successful, productive interview, review this list of Interview Tips before conducting your

interview.

TECHNICAL WRITING 47

https://www.usa.gov/

https://www.cocc.edu/employees/crubio/interview-tips.aspx

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

Research Tools derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from The Information Literacy User’s Guide edited by Greg Bobish and Trudi

Jacobson, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

48 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

http://textbooks.opensuny.org/the-information-literacy-users-guide-an-open-online-textbook/

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/

4 . 5 S E A RC H S T R AT E G I E S

Now that you know more about the research tools available to you, it’s time to consider how to

construct searches that will allow you to find the most relevant, useful results as efficiently as possible.

D E V E LO P E F F E C T I V E K E Y W O R D S

The single most important search strategy is to choose effective search terms. This may seem obvious,

but it is too often overlooked, with deleterious consequences. When deciding what terms to use in

a search, break down your topic into its main concepts. Do not enter an entire sentence or a full

question. The best thing to do is to use the key concepts involved with your topic. In addition, think

of synonyms or related terms for each concept. If you do this, you will have more flexibility when

searching in case your first search term does not produce any or enough results. This may sound

strange, since if you are looking for information using a Web search engine, you usually get too many

results. Databases, however, contain fewer items than the entire web, and having alternative search

terms may lead you to useful sources. Even in a search engine like Google, having terms you can

combine thoughtfully will yield better results.

Figure 4. Keyword brainstorming for the topic of violence in high schools

TECHNICAL WRITING 49

Image credit: The Information Literacy User’s Guide edited by Greg Bobish and Trudi Jacobson, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

A DVA N C E D S E A RC H T E C H N I Q U E S

Once you have identified the concepts you want to search and have carefully chosen your keywords,

think about how you will enter them into the search box of your selected search tool. Try the

techniques below in both research databases and web search engines.

B O O L E A N O P E R ATO R S

Boolean operators are a search technique that will help you

• focus your search, particularly when your topic contains multiple search terms

• connect various pieces of information to find exactly what you are looking for

There are three Boolean operators: AND, OR, and NOT. You capitalize Boolean operators to

distinguish them from the words and, or, and not (words which most search engines ignore). It is also

important to note that you should spell out AND rather than substituting commas, ampersands, or

plus signs. Usually you should spell out NOT as well, except in Google, where you must use the minus

sign (-).

50 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

https://pressbooks.com/app/uploads/sites/41773/2016/08/keywords.png

http://textbooks.opensuny.org/the-information-literacy-users-guide-an-open-online-textbook/

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/

AND

Use AND in a search to

• narrow your results

• tell the database that ALL search terms must be present in the resulting records

Example: cloning AND humans AND ethics

The purple triangle where all circles intersect in the middle of the Venn diagram below represents

the result set for this search. It is a small set created by a combination of all three search words.

Figure 5. Example of search terms connected by AND

Image credit: Database Search Tips: Boolean Operators

by MIT Libraries, CC: BY-NC 2.0

Use OR in a search to accomplish the following:

• connect two or more similar concepts (synonyms)

• broaden your results, telling the database that any one of your search terms can be present in the

resulting records

Example: (cloning OR genetics OR reproduction)

All three circles represent the result set for this search. It is a big set because the OR operator

includes all of those search terms.

Figure 6. Example of search terms connected by OR

TECHNICAL WRITING 51

https://pressbooks.com/app/uploads/sites/41773/2016/08/and_venn.gif

https://pressbooks.com/app/uploads/sites/41773/2016/08/or_venn.gif

Image credit: Database Search Tips: Boolean Operators

by MIT Libraries, CC: BY-NC 2.0

NOT

Use NOT in a search to

• exclude words from your search

• narrow your search, telling the database to ignore concepts that may be implied by your search

terms

Example: cloning NOT sheep

The purple part of the circle below represents your results for this search, because you’ve used NOT

to exclude a subset of results that are about sheep (represented by the gray circle).

Figure 7. Example of search using NOT

Combining operators

You can combine the different Boolean operators into one search. The important thing to know when

combining operators is to use parentheses around the terms connected with OR. This ensures that the

database interprets your search query correctly.

52 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

https://pressbooks.com/app/uploads/sites/41773/2016/08/not_venn.jpg

Example: ethics AND (cloning OR genetics OR reproduction)

The shaded area of the diagram below represents the results set for the above search.

Figure 8. Example of complex Boolean search that connects terms with AND and OR

P H R A S E S

Web and research databases usually treat your search terms as separate words, meaning they look for

each word appearing in a document, regardless of its location around the other words in your search

term. Sometimes you may want to system to instead search for a specific phrase (a set of words that

collectively describe your topic).

To do this, put the phrase in quotation marks, as in “community college.”

With phrase searches, you will typically get fewer results than searching for the words individually,

which makes it an effective way to focus your search.

T RU N C AT I O N

Truncation, also called stemming, is a technique that allows you to search for multiple variations of a

root word at once.

Most databases have a truncation symbol. The * is the most commonly used symbol, but !, ?, and #

are also used. If you are not sure, check the help files.

To use truncation, enter the root of your word and end it with the truncation symbol.

Example: genetic* searches for genetic, genetics, genetically

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from the following sources:

• Search Strategies: Develop Effective Keywords derived from The Information Literacy User’s

Guide edited by Greg Bobish and Trudi Jacobson, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

TECHNICAL WRITING 53

https://pressbooks.com/app/uploads/sites/41773/2016/08/Boolean_order_Venn.png

http://textbooks.opensuny.org/the-information-literacy-users-guide-an-open-online-textbook/

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/

• Search Strategies: Advanced Search Techniques derived from Database Search Tips: Boolean

Operators by MIT Libraries, CC: BY-NC 2.0

54 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

https://www.lib.ncsu.edu/tutorials/evaluating-sources/

4 . 6 E VA L UAT E S O U RC E S

Information sources vary in quality, and before you use a source in your academic assignments or

work projects, you must evaluate them for quality. You want your own work to be of high quality,

credible, and accurate, and you can only achieve that by having sources possess those same qualities.

Watch this video on evaluating sources for an overview of what credibility is, why it’s important,

and some of the criteria to look for when evaluating a source.

Video credit: Evaluating Sources for Credibility by NCSU

Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

There are five basic criteria for evaluating information. While it may seem like a lot to think about at

first, after a little practice, you will find that you can evaluate sources quickly.

Here are the five basic criteria, with key questions and indicators to help you evaluate your source:

• Authority

◦ Key Question: Is the person, organization, or institution responsible for the intellectual content

of the information knowledgeable in that subject?

◦ Indicators of authority: formal academic degrees, years of professional experience, active and

substantial involvement in a particular area

• Accuracy

◦ Key Question: How free from error is this piece of information?

TECHNICAL WRITING 55

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/

◦ Indicators of accuracy: correct and verifiable citations, information is verifiable in other

sources from different authors/organizations, author is authority on subject

• Objectivity

◦ Key Question: How objective is this piece of information?

◦ Indicators of objectivity: multiple points of view are acknowledged and discussed logically and

clearly, statements are supported with documentation from a variety of reliable sources, purpose

is clearly stated

• Currency

◦ Key Question: When was the item of information published or produced?

◦ Indicators of currency: publication date, assignment restrictions (e.g., you can only use articles

from the last 5 years), your topic and how quickly information changes in your field (e.g.,

technology or health topics will require very recent information to reflect rapidly changing

areas of expertise)

• Audience

◦ Key Question: Who is this information written for or this product developed for?

◦ Indicators of audience: language, style, tone, bibliographies

When evaluating and selecting sources for an assignment or work project, compare your sources

to one another in light of your topic. Imagine, for example, you are writing a paper about bicycle

commuting. You have three sources about bicycle safety. One is written for children; one is for adult

recreational bicyclers; and one is for traffic engineers. Your topic is specifically about building urban

and suburban infrastructure to encourage bicycling, so the source written for traffic engineers is

clearly more appropriate for your topic than the other two. Even if the other two are high-quality

sources, they are not the most relevant sources for your specific topic.

Until you have practiced evaluating many sources, it can be a little difficult to find the indicators,

especially in web sources.

Table 6. Locations where you might find indicators of quality in different types of sources

If you are looking
for indications
of…

In books see the… In journals see the… In websites see the…

Authority
Title page, Forward, Preface, Afterward, Dust
Jackets, Bibliography

Periodical covers, Editorial Staff, Letters
to the Editor, Abstract, Bibliography

URL, About Us, Publications,
Appearance

Accuracy
Title page, Forward, Preface, Afterward,
Periodical covers, Dust Jackets, Text,
Bibliography

Periodical covers, Text, Bibliography
URL, About Us, Home page,
Awards, Text

Objectivity
Forward, Preface, Afterward, Text,
Bibliorgraphy

Abstracts, Text, Bibliography, Editorials,
Letters to the Editor

About Us, Site Map, Text,
Disclaimers, Membership/
Registration

Currency Title page, copyright page, Bibliography Title page, Bibliorgraphy, Abstracts
Home page, Copyright, What’s
New

Audience Forward, Preface, Afterward
Letters to the editor, Editorial,
Appearance

Home page, About, Mission,
Disclaimer, Members only

56 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

When you have located and evaluated information for your paper, report, or project, you will use it to

complete your work. A later chapter of this text will cover how to use it correctly and ethically.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

Evaluate Sources derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Evaluating Information by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 57

http://info-skills.lib.vt.edu/evaluating_info/index.html

http://info-skills.lib.vt.edu/citations/index.html

5. CITATIONS AND PLAGIARISM

Like most writers, technical writers need to demonstrate their credibility, objectivity, and

thoroughness by referencing quality source material. Technical writers reveal and share source

information both to give credit to the writers of that material and also to demonstrate they have done

thorough research. Because this text was designed for an academic course in technical writing, this

chapter describes conventions of academic citations you will use in producing a report. That said, the

information will easily transfer to other professional and academic writing tasks.

Chapter Attribution Information

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from the following sources:

• Citations: A derivative from Citations by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0 and Citing

Sources: Overview by MIT Libraries, CC: BY-NC 2.0

• Plagiarism: A derivative from The Information Literacy User’s Guide edited by Greg Bobish and

Trudi Jacobson, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US and Plagiarism by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA

4.0 and Plagiarism: Avoid it at all costs! by UCD Library, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0

http://libguides.mit.edu/citing

http://textbooks.opensuny.org/the-information-literacy-users-guide-an-open-online-textbook/

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/

http://info-skills.lib.vt.edu/using_info/2.html

http://www.ucd.ie/library/elearning/plagiarism/story.html

https://www.lib.ncsu.edu/tutorials/citation/

5 . 1 C I TAT I O N S

Citations are the way in which you give credit to others for their work and avoid committing

plagiarism. They are also the way in which you join the professional or scholarly conversation on a

given topic.

Watch this short video to learn more about why citations are important.

Video credit: Citation: A (Very) Brief Introduction by NCSU

Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US

Citations come in two forms: in-text citations and full citations.

There are many different citation styles. Two of the most common academic styles are American

Psychological Association (APA) and Modern Language Association (MLA). For academic

assignments, your instructor will usually specify which style you should use. Generally speaking,

MLA is used more frequently in the humanities, while APA is used more commonly in the social

sciences and sciences. However, some subjects may have their own discipline-specific citation types,

such as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) style for the mechanical engineering

field. Whatever style you choose or are asked to use, remember to stick with it consistently

throughout your report.

I N -T E X T C I TAT I O N S

In-text citations are used within the text of your paper and indicate to your readers from which

source listed in your works cited or bibliography you are extracting information or quotations. That

way, even if you have multiple sources, it is always clear which source you are using at any given

TECHNICAL WRITING 61

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/

time. As with full citations, discussed below, format of in-text citations differs depending on which

citation style you are using. APA uses the author-year format, while MLA uses the author-page

number format. Other styles of in-text citation include footnotes or endnotes, in which continuously

sequenced numbers refer the reader to a list of citations elsewhere in the document. Some examples

are below.

APA

Students should choose their study locations carefully for best results (Lei, 2015).

MLA

Students should choose their study locations carefully for best results (Lei 197).

In-text citations should always have a corresponding full citation on the References or Works Cited

page at the end of a paper.

F U L L C I TAT I O N S

Full citations generally have three major parts, though the order and formatting of these parts

depends on the citation style you use.

Major parts

• Information about the person or body that created it – the author(s), editor(s), speaker(s), etc.

• Information that distinguishes the content of the specific work being cited – the title of an article,

chapter, book, or presentation

• Information about the location or creation of the work – usually, where and when it was published

or presented. This can include whether or not the work is part of a larger publication or series

(volume and issue numbers), the number of printed pages it contains, or the web address (URL),

and date it was accessed.

Below is an example of an article citation – the full citation for the in-text citation above – using MLA

and APA styles. Notice the common elements that are present in both. You find the elements for a

citation in the fields of a database or library catalog record or on the information item itself.

Author – Lei, Simon A.

Article Title – Variation in Study Patterns among College Students: A Review of Literature

Source Title – College Student Journal

Volume and Issue – Volume 49, Issue 2

Publication Date – 2015

Page Numbers – 195-198

APA

Lei, S. A. (2015). Variation in study patterns among college students: A review of literature. College

Student Journal, 49(2), 195-198.

MLA

Lei, Simon A. “Variation in Study Patterns among College Students: A Review of Literature.” College

Student Journal, vol. 49, no. 2, 2015, pp. 195-198. Academic Search Premier. Accessed 27 May

2016.

Luckily, you do not need to memorize citation style formats. There are excellent online guides and

tools that will help you cite sources correctly. Additionally, you can always ask your instructor or a

librarian for help if you have a question or a difficult source to cite.

62 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

Online guides and tools to consult:

• Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL): Invaluable for MLA, APA, and Chicago styles, this guide

covers in-text citations, bibliography/works cited pages, and guidelines for citing many types of

information sources.

• Citation Builder: From the University of North Carolina, the Citation Builder is an automated

form for creating citations. You select the style, enter the information, and it generates a citation.

It’s always a good idea to double check these citation-generator tools!

• Zotero: Developed at the Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media at George Mason

University, Zotero is a sophisticated research management tool. You can use it to save and

organize your sources and create citations. As a more sophisticated tool, it requires a little more

time and efforts to learn, but the time is worth it when you’re researching and writing a lot.

In addition to these tools, many research databases and library catalogs offer citation tools that help

you create a citation for an item you’ve located using that service. Look for a button or link labeled

cite or citation. Again, with these automatically-generated citations, be sure to double check it for

accuracy. They aren’t always correct.

Figure 1. example of the citation button in PubMed Central, a freely available research database.

B I B L I O G R A P H Y

Citation Builder. (n.d.). University of North Carolina. Retrieved from http://library.unc.edu/

citationbuilder/.

Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL). (2015). Purdue University. Retrieved

from https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/.

Zotero. (n.d.) Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media. Retrieved

from https://www.zotero.org/about/.

TECHNICAL WRITING 63

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/2/

http://library.unc.edu/citationbuilder/

https://www.zotero.org/

http://library.unc.edu/citationbuilder/

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/

https://www.zotero.org/about/

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Citations: A derivative from Citations by Virginia Tech Libraries, CC: BY-

NC-SA 4.0 and Citing Sources: Overview by MIT Libraries, CC: BY-NC 2.0

64 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

http://info-skills.lib.vt.edu/citations/index.html

http://libguides.mit.edu/citing

https://www.cocc.edu/policies/general-policy-manual/student/student-rights-and-responsibilities.aspx

5 . 2 P L AG I A R I S M

Plagiarism is the presentation of someone else’s work as your own.

More formally stated it is the act of claiming language, ideas, opinions, theories, software code,

artistic material, or anything else developed by another person without acknowledging that person as

the source of the material.

In the world of cut and paste, it is incredibly easy to commit plagiarism and not even be aware of

doing so. Regardless of whether it is intentional or unintentional, plagiarism is dishonest, unfair, and

unethical.

There are serious consequences for both intentional and unintentional plagiarism. Ignorance is not

an excuse. As a student, the consequences of plagiarism can range from the loss of credit for a course

to expulsion from school. In the work world, the consequences of plagiarism can range from loss

of your professional reputation to loss of your job and destruction of your career. As a student, you

should be familiar with your school’s academic integrity policies. As one example, Central Oregon

Community College (COCC) publishes the COCC Student Rights and Responsibilities, which spells

out the consequences for committing plagiarism at COCC (see the “Academic Honesty” sub-heading

in Section C of the Rights and Responsibilities).

Examples of plagiarism:

• Copying and pasting from a source into your work without attribution

• Purchasing a paper online or from another student

• Turning in the same work in two different classes (self-plagiarism)

• Failing to put quotation marks around direct quotes in your work

• Copying a diagram, image, graph, or photo into your work without referencing the source

• Copying and pasting text and changing just a few words or phrases to “put it into your own

words,” sometimes referred to as patch writing

• Using information gained in a personal interview or conversation without citing the source

• Failing to cite sources for any information that you used in your paper

Only information considered to be universally common knowledge, such as dates of important events

and widely known facts, can be used without citing the source.

Credit must always be given to others for

• their words, either quoted or paraphrased

• their artistic material

TECHNICAL WRITING 65

• their research findings, analysis, and conclusions

The primary way to avoid plagiarism is to cite or list the sources you used in preparing your work.

Citing sources is the way you tell your audience whose works you used and to give credit to the

creators of those works. It has the side benefit of providing your audience with a bibliography of

relevant items on that topic.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Plagiarism: A derivative from The Information Literacy User’s Guide

edited by Greg Bobish and Trudi Jacobson, CC: BY-NC-SA 3.0 US and Plagiarism by Virginia Tech

Libraries, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0 and Plagiarism: Avoid it at all costs! by UCD Library, CC: BY-NC-SA

4.0

66 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

http://textbooks.opensuny.org/the-information-literacy-users-guide-an-open-online-textbook/

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/

http://info-skills.lib.vt.edu/using_info/2.html

http://www.ucd.ie/library/elearning/plagiarism/story.html

6. PROGRESS REPORTS

You write a progress report to inform a supervisor, associate, or customer about progress you’ve

made on a project over a certain period of time. The project can be the design, construction, or repair

of something, the study or research of a problem or question, or the gathering of information on a

technical subject. You write progress reports when it takes several weeks or even months to complete

a project.

Chapter Attribution Information

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

6 . 1 F U N C T I O N S A N D C O N T E N T S O F P RO G R E S S R E P O RT S

In the progress report, you explain any or all of the following:

• How much of the work is complete

• What part of the work is currently in progress

• What work remains to be done

• What problems or unexpected things, if any, have arisen

• How the project is going in general

Progress reports have several important functions:

• Reassure recipients that you are making progress, that the project is going smoothly, and that it

will be complete by the expected date.

• Provide recipients with a brief look at some of the findings or some of the work of the project.

• Give recipients a chance to evaluate your work on the project and to request changes.

• Give you a chance to discuss problems in the project and thus to forewarn recipients.

• Force you to establish a work schedule so that you’ll complete the project on time.

• Project a sense of professionalism to your work and your organization.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 69

6 . 2 T I M I N G A N D F O R M AT O F P RO G R E S S R E P O RT S

In a year-long project, there are customarily three progress reports, one after three, six, and nine

months. Depending on the size of the progress report, the length and importance of the project, and

the recipient, the progress report can take the following forms:

• Memo—A short, informal report to someone within your organization

• Letter—A short, informal report sent to someone outside your organization

• Formal report—A formal report sent to someone outside your organization

In our course, you will write a progress report in the form of a thorough memo, and you will attach

an outline to that memo to give your recipient an idea of the content in your final report. (See the

chapter on Outlines for more information.)

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

70 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

6 . 3 O RG A N I Z AT I O N A L PAT T E R N S O R S E C T I O N S F O R P RO G R E S S R E P O RT S

The recipient of a progress report wants to see what you’ve accomplished on the project, what you

are working on now, what you plan to work on next, and how the project is going in general. In other

words, the following three sections are key in any progress memo or progress report:

• Work accomplished in the preceding period(s)

• Work currently being performed

• Work planned for the next period(s)

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 71

6 . 4 OT H E R PA RT S O F P RO G R E S S R E P O RT S

In your progress memo or report, you also need to include the following sections: (a) an introduction

that reviews the purpose and scope of the project, (b) a detailed description of your project and its

history, and (c) an overall appraisal of the project to date, which usually acts as the conclusion.

• Opening paragraph introducing the purpose of the memo and a reminder about the project topic

• Summary of the project

• Specific objectives of the project

• Scope, or limits, of the project

• Research gathered

• Overall assessment or appraisal of the project at this time

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

72 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

6 . 5 R E V I S I O N C H E C K L I S T F O R P RO G R E S S R E P O RT S

As you reread and revise your progress report, watch out for problems such as the following:

• Make sure you use the right format. If this is for a course, check with your instructor; if it is for a

work place, check with your supervisor.

• Write a clear opening paragraph reminding your recipient of the project you are working on and

that you are providing progress on that project

• Use headings to mark off the different parts of your progress report, particularly the different

parts of your summary of work done on the project.

• Use lists as appropriate.

• Provide specifics—avoid relying on vague, overly general statements about the work you’ve done

on the final report project.

• Be sure and address the progress report to the real or realistic audience—not your instructor.

If you will be including an outline of your report with your progress memo, you may find it helpful to

move next to the chapter on creating outlines.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 73

7. OUTLINES

Outlines are a necessary part of writing. Period. Outlines are like a road map. They give you direction;

they tell you where to go. Working without an outline is like trying to get from Oregon to New York

and only knowing you need to go east. This chapter provides helpful tips for creating a road map for

technical reports and other documents.

Chapter Attribution Information

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

http://screencast.com/t/wtpSIIYWbfSj

7 . 1 C R E AT I N G A N D U S I N G O U T L I N E S

In technical writing, outlines can serve multiple purposes. One is help the writer organize ideas and

evidence, and the other to communicate your plan of development clearly to the person who has the

authority to move your project forward. Therefore, the various parts of your outline should make

sense to you and communicate your ideas clearly to your audience.

As you begin to outline your report:

◦ Indicate main idea/thesis at top.

◦ Name and number the major sections of the

report at the left margin.

▪ Add details for each section underneath the major section. Write in complete sentences when

presenting details.

▪ Indent the details related to each section underneath the names of major sections.

◦ Alternate between numbers and letters to indicate different levels: I. A. 1. a. 1) a)

Take a peek at the following three-minute video which explains how helpful outlines can be in writing

a technical report:

Start screen for outlines screencast

Other suggestions about creating an outline from your research:

• Develop as specific an outline as you can: it shows you what information you must gather and, as

importantly, what information you can ignore.

• Use the indexes, tables of contents, and headings within chapters of books or articles from

databases selectively for just the information you need.

• Divide your work into manageable, hour-long chunks (make progress rather than relying on big

blocks of weekend or vacation time).

Before you begin your detailed, formal outline, you might wish to consider the following:

1. Do any preliminary reading necessary to construct a rough outline.

2. Develop a rough outline with major section headings you are considering for this report.

3. Identify your information sources, and make a bibliographic citation for each.

4. Take notes as your read determining in which sections each source material might best work.

TECHNICAL WRITING 77

5. Provide in-text citations as you develop your outline; doing so will help document sources

thoroughly and ethically at all stages (and will make your job easier when you are drafting your

report).

6. Change or add extra detail to the outline as the research process continues.

When you have completed sufficient research to develop your ideas, a formal outline can be used to

develop a draft of your report. As you write and revise, you will continue filling in details, adding

transitions, and providing your own acquired understanding of the subject. It isn’t uncommon to

discover gaps in your early draft and have to go back and conduct more research. Keep in mind

that this is a working outline and not a contract; as you continue your research, you may decide to

organize the final report differently and even delete some information and add new sections.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

78 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

7 . 2 D E V E LO P I N G T H E RO U G H O U T L I N E

In the early stages of developing a formal, detailed outline, create a working outline before you begin

gathering information. The rough outline shows you which specific topics to gather information on

and which ones to ignore. Think of the outline as a series of questions:

Rough outline for a
report on light water
nuclear reactors

Questions generated by the outline

1. Pressurized Water
Reactors

1. Major
Components

2. Basic
Operations

What are the main differences? What are the main components? What are the materials? Design? Dimensions? How
many are in operation? Where Who designed them?

1. Boiling Water
Reactors

1. Major
Components

2. Basic
Operation

How do they differ from PWRs? What are the main components? What are the materials? Design? Dimensions?
Designers? Where used? How many?

1. Safety Measures

1. Pressurized
Water
Reactors

2. Boiling Water
Reactors

3. Role of the
Nuclear
Regulatory
Commission

What are the chief dangers? What are the dangers and safety measures associated with PWRs? What are the dangers
and safety measures associated with BWRs? How does the NRC regulate nuclear power plants? What standards does it
enforce? How?

1. Economic Aspects
of Light Water
Reactors

1. Construction
Costs

2. Operation and
Maintenance
Costs

3. Operating
Capacity

What are the construction, operation, maintenance, and fuel costs? What about the availability of fuel? How do these
costs compare to output? How do the PWR and the BWR compare in terms of costs and output? How much electricity
can a LWR generate at full capacity?

Figure 1. Viewing an outline as a series of questions

Keep in mind that this rough outline is in its early stage. The formal outline you will ultimately

TECHNICAL WRITING 79

create and submit will be much more developed, containing specific details and information from

your anticipated sections of your report.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

80 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

8. CREATING AND INTEGRATING GRAPHICS

Technical writers integrate graphics, also referred to as visuals, to complement text in a report. Visuals

can take a number of forms— tables, charts, photographs, drawings, to name a few— but their purpose

rarely varies: graphics should help to clarify information presented in the report. They also provide an

additional benefit: they help to break up a text-heavy report, thereby making the report more visually

appealing.

Chapter Attribution Information

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

8 . 1 D E C I D I N G W H I C H G R A P H I C S TO I N C L U D E

As you review your research and begin to think about possible visuals to include in your report, the

first step is to consider which graphics are most appropriate given the data you wish to convey. The

table below provides some general guidelines on the kind of graphic most suitable given the type of

information.

Information to Convey Visual Type

Numbers, percentages, categories Tables, charts

Processes Flow charts

Geographic data Maps

Chronological or prioritized lists Numbered lists

Non-chronological lists Bulleted lists

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 83

8 . 2 OT H E R C O N S I D E R AT I O N S : AU D I E N C E

When creating graphics, it is very important to keep your audience in mind. This relates not just to

the content you share but also how that content appears on the page. Are you aware, for instance,

that the same color has different meanings across various cultures? Take a look at the graphic below

and notice how the color red means something very different across culture. Similar differences exist

across cultures with other colors, as well, so be aware that the choices you make in colors for your

graphics may communicate ideas you do not actually intend.

Figure 1: Meanings of the color red around the world

84 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 85

8 . 3 OT H E R C O N S I D E R AT I O N S : P L AC E M E N T A N D C O N T E X T

As you develop visuals for your report, you will want to also consider where they should be placed

and what information you will need to provide in the body of your report to adequately prepare your

readers for the message within that graphic. Minimally, consider the following:

• Introduce the information appearing in a graphic in clear sentences in the paragraph preceding the

visual. That is also a good place to provide the source material for the information in the graphic,

if applicable.

• Give the visual a name, even if that is simply “Table 1” or “Figure 1” for easy reference.

• Make sure the information within the graphic is clear and easy to understand.

• Provide source information at the bottom of the graphic.

• Write some follow-up text after the graphic. This might be an interpretation or a final comment

about the implications of the information in the visual.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

86 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

http://coccoer.pressbooks.com/files/2016/05/CreatingImagesandGraphicsExamplesforImprovement.pdf

8 . 4 S A M P L E S

Let’s take a look at some samples.

The first example below is a pie chart created with information the writer obtained from an

interview. Notice that the writer provides a name for the visual, includes introductory sentences

to provide context for the graphic, lists source information at the bottom of the chart, and finally,

includes some closing remarks to tie it all together.

Not all gardeners will experience success with growing vegetables in Central Oregon, and the town of Sisters

is especially challenging because of the varied temperatures all year long and the chance of frost or even

freezing temperatures during any month of the year. Central Oregon and Sisters resident, Jane Doe, had the

greatest success with the following vegetables in the year 2015 as noted in the pie chart below.

Table 1: Vegetables grown in 2015

Source: Interview with Master Gardener, Jane Doe, 2 May 2016.

It is important to note that depending on the hardiness zone of the city, some vegetables may do better than

others. Doe also commented that she protected her tomatoes either inside a green house or under a hoop

house.

Below you will find another visual of the same information from the pie chart. It is provided to give

you another way of visualizing the same information.

TECHNICAL WRITING 87

Figure 1: Vegetables grown in 2015

Source: Interview with Master Gardener, Jane Doe, 2 May 2016.

Finally, here is a simple table conveying information about plant hardiness zones for growers in

Central Oregon. Notice again that the table isn’t simply inserted and left on its own for readers

to interpret; the writer introduces the table with prefatory remarks and also provides follow-up

commentary after the table.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture publishes a Plant Hardiness Zone Map which growers and gardeners

use to help determine which plants, including vegetables and trees, will be most successful at a particular

location. The table below shows the hardiness zone for four cities in Central Oregon and includes the annual

minimum winter temperature—important information to keep in mind when determining not only which

vegetables to plant but how long the growing season may be.

Table 1: Hardiness Zones in Central Oregon

Central Oregon City Hardiness Zone Winter Temperature Range

Sisters 6a -10 to -5 (Fahrenheit)

Bend 6b -5 to 0 (Fahrenheit)

Redmond 6b -5 to 0 (Fahrenheit)

Tumalo 6b -5 to 0 (Fahrenheit)

Source information: “United States Department of Agriculture.” USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map. 2012. Web.

05 May 2016.

Before purchasing any plants or vegetables for your own garden, make sure you look at the hardiness

number on the label to be sure that item will grow successfully in your climate zone.

Now that you have had a chance to learn about strategies for creating effective graphics and have

examined some strong examples, let’s look at a few that could use some revision. As you look at the

88 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

following visuals, note the possible strengths and weaknesses of each one. Consider what advice you

might give the writer on how to improve these graphics.

Examples of visuals that could use revision.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 89

8 . 5 G U I D E L I N E S F O R G R A P H I C S : A F I N A L R E V I E W

Keep the following in mind as you consider possible visual enhancements to your report:

• Use graphics to supplement or clarify information provided within the body of your report.

• Make sure your graphics are appropriate to your audience, subject matter, and purpose.

• Discuss graphics in nearby text preceding the graphic. Don’t just insert a graphic in your report

unexplained. Orient readers to the graphic; explain its basic meaning, easily done in introductory

and follow-up sentences before and after your graphic.

• Intersperse graphics and text on the same page. Don’t put graphics on pages by themselves; ideally,

no visual should take up more than one-third of any page in your report.

• Use figure numbers and titles for graphics. Additionally, include identifying detail within the

graphics such as illustration labels, axis labels, keys, and so on.

• Make sure graphics fit within normal margins. Leave at least one blank line above and below

graphics.

• Place graphics as near to the point in the text where they are relevant as is reasonable. However, if

a graphic does not fit properly on one page, indicate that it appears on the next page and put it at

the top of the next, continuing with regular text on the preceding page. Don’t leave half a page

blank just to keep a graphic near the text it is associated with.

• Cite all images that you create from any source material. You should do this in your introductory

sentences before the visual as well as include a citation, if relevant, at the bottom of the visual. See

samples above.

• Cite any images you use created by another writer which you include in your report. While it is

perfectly legal to borrow graphics—to trace, photocopy, scan, or extract subsets of data from them,

you are obligated to accurately cite your sources for graphics just as you are for the words you

borrow.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

90 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

9. ETHICS IN TECHNICAL WRITING

Up to this point, you have probably been thinking about technical writing in relation to

communicating technical information clearly in an accessible format that meets the needs of its

audience. These are important aspects of technical writing, to be sure, but they really only represent

the surface of what you need to know. This chapter will introduce some of the ethical issues that may

arise as technical writers research, write, revise, and produce a technical document.

Like other professionals, technical writers come up against ethical issues regularly and must make

decisions about how to move forward with a project in the face of ethical dilemmas. Writers may

encounter situations in which she must ask the following kinds of questions: What kinds of support

material and sources are ethical to use? Are open web sources just as valid as academic sources for

certain topics? Can email communications be used without permission? What if the writer discovers

that a company falsified data about the effectiveness of its product? Should she reveal this in her

report or should she take other courses of action? How much should a writer adapt to an audience

without sacrificing his own views?

Ethics principles provide the basis for deciding whether “x” is ethical, but in reality, ethical issues

are complicated—for example, imagine working for a large company that employs substantial

numbers of people in your town, where relatively few other employment opportunities exist. Imagine

that the company disposes of its chemical waste in a way that could endanger people’s health. Imagine,

further, that the company cannot afford to dispose of this waste more safely and that, if you turn them

in, the company will close down, most of the town will be unemployed, and the town’s entire economy

will collapse. What do you do? Is the risk of future health problems more serious than the certainty of

immediately destroying your town? Which choice is really more ethical?

On a smaller scale, if one way of presenting evidence requires some manipulation of data but seems

to be the only way of keeping sales strong enough for your company to survive, what should you do?

If you take the unethical route, odds are good that few (or no) people will realize you have done so, and

you would not be doing anything illegal. If you take the ethical route, and sales plummet, few people

will recognize the ethical issue, but most will clearly understand that you caused the sales decline.

Chapter Attribution Information

This chapter was written by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0. Thanks to Eleanor Sumpter-Latham, Humanities/

Writing Professor at Central Oregon Community College for contributing to this chapter.

9 . 1 G E N E R A L P R I N C I P L E S

In day-to-day life, most people have a sort of sliding scale on what constitutes ethical behavior: they

would not tell a direct lie on trivial matters if doing so would hurt someone’s feelings. For example,

you might tell your best friend her new haircut looks attractive when in fact you believe that it does

not. This lie, though minor, preserves your friend’s feelings and does no harm to her or anyone else.

Some might consider the context before determining how to act. For example, you might not tell a

stranger that he was trailing toilet paper but you would tell a friend. In a more serious situation, a

person might not choose to die to save a stranger’s life, but she might risk dying to save her children’s

lives.

Ethical behavior, including ethical technical communication, involves not just telling the truth and

providing accurate information, but telling the truth and providing information so that a reasonable

audience knows the truth. It also means that you act to prevent actual harm, with set criteria for

what kinds and degrees of harm are more serious than others (for example, someone’s life outweighs

financial damage to your company; your company’s success outweighs your own irritation). As a

guideline, ask yourself what would happen if your action (or non-action) became public. If you would

go to prison, lose your friends, lose your job, or even just feel really embarrassed, the action is

probably unethical.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

TECHNICAL WRITING 95

This chapter was written by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0. Thanks to Eleanor Sumpter-Latham, Humanities/

Writing Professor at Central Oregon Community College for contributing to this chapter.

9 . 2 P R E S E N TAT I O N O F I N F O R M AT I O N

How a writer presents information in a document can affect a reader’s understanding of the relative

weight or seriousness of that information. For example, hiding some crucial bit of information in the

middle of a long paragraph deep in a long document seriously de-emphasizes the information. On the

other hand, putting a minor point in a prominent spot (say the first item in a bulleted list in a report’s

executive summary) tells your reader that it is crucial.

A classic example of unethical technical writing is the memo report NASA engineers wrote about

the problem with O ring seals on the space shuttle Challenger (the link provides further links

to a wide range of information, including ethics analyses; the first link is the overview for what

happened). The unethical feature was that the crucial information about the O rings (O rings provide

a seal) was buried in a middle paragraph, while information approving the launch was in prominent

beginning and ending spots. Presumably, the engineers were trying to present a full report, including

safe components in the Challenger, but the memo’s audience—non-technical managers—mistakenly

believed the O ring problem to be inconsequential, even if it happened. The position of information

in this document did not help them understand that the problem could be fatal. Possibly the engineers

were just poor writers; possibly they did not consider their audience; or possibly they did not want

to look bad and therefore emphasized all the things that were right with the Challenger. (Incidentally,

the O rings had worked fine for several launches.)

Ethical writing, then, involves being ethical, of course, but also presenting information so that your

target audience will understand the relative importance of information and understand whether some

technical fact is a good thing or a bad thing.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was written by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0. Thanks to Eleanor Sumpter-Latham, Humanities/

Writing Professor at Central Oregon Community College for contributing to this chapter.

98 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

9 . 3 T Y P I C A L E T H I C S I S S U E S I N T E C H N I C A L W R I T I N G

There are a few issues that may come up when researching a topic for the business or technical world

that a writer must consider. Let’s look at a few.

R E S E A RC H T H AT D O E S N OT S U P P O RT T H E P RO J E C T I D E A

In a technical report that contains research, a writer might discover conflicting data which does

not support the projects’ goal. For example, your small company continues to have problems with

employee morale. Research shows bringing in an outside expert, someone who is unfamiliar with the

company and the stakeholders, has the potential to impact the greatest change. You discover, however,

that to bring in such an expert is cost prohibitive. You struggle with whether to leave this information

out of your report, thereby encouraging your employer to pursue an action that is really not feasible.

S U P P R E S S I N G R E L E VA N T I N F O R M AT I O N

Imagine you are researching a report for a parents’ group that wants to change the policy in the

local school district requiring all students to be vaccinated. You collect a handful of sources that

support the group’s goal, but then you discover medical evidence that indicates vaccines do more good

than potential harm in society. Since you are employed by this parents’ group, should you leave out

the medical evidence, or do you have a responsibility to include all research, even some that might

sabotage the groups’ goal.

P R E S E N T I N G V I S UA L I N F O R M AT I O N E T H I C A L LY

Visuals can be useful for communicating data and information efficiently for a reader. They provide

data in a concentrated form, often illustrating key facts, statistics or information from the text

of the report. When writers present information visually, however, they have to be careful not to

misrepresent or misreport the complete picture.

The visual below shows two perspectives of information in a pie chart. The data in each is identical

but the pie chart on the left presents information in a misleading way (see Fig. 1). What do you notice,

however, about how that information is conveyed to the reader?

Fig. 1 – Misleading and regular pie charts

TECHNICAL WRITING 99

Imagine that these pie charts represented donations received by four candidates for city council. The

candidate represented by the green slice labeled “Item C,” might think that she had received more

donations than the candidate represented in the blue “Item A” slice. In fact, if we look at the same data

in a differently oriented chart, we can see that Item C represents less than half of the donations than

those for Item A. Thus, a simple change in perspective can change the impact of an image.

Similarly, take a look at the bar graphs in figure 2 below. What do you notice about their

presentation?

Fig. 2 – Misleading and regular bar graphs

If the bar graph above were to represent sales figures for a company, the representation on the left

would look like good news: dramatically increased sales over a five-year period. However, a closer

look at the numbers shows that the graph shows only a narrow range of numbers in a limited

perspective (9100 to 9800). The bar graph on the right, on the other hand, shows the complete picture

by presenting numbers from 0-1200 on the vertical axis, and we see that the sales figures, have in fact

been relatively stable for the past five years.

Presenting data in graphical form can be especially challenging. Keep in mind the importance of

providing appropriate context and perspective as you prepare your graphics.

100 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

L I M I T E D S O U RC E I N F O R M AT I O N I N R E S E A RC H

Thorough research requires that a writer integrates information from a variety of reliable sources.

These sources should demonstrate that the writer has examined the topic from as many angles as

possible. This includes scholarly and professional research, not just from a single database or journal,

for instance, but from a variety. Using a variety of sources helps the writer avoid potential bias that

can occur from relying on only a few experts. If you were writing a report on the real estate market

in Central Oregon, you would not collect data from only one broker’s office. While this office might

have access to broader data on the real estate market, as a writer you run the risk of looking biased if

you only chose materials from this one source. Collecting information from multiple brokers would

demonstrate thorough and unbiased research.

A F E W A D D I T I O N A L C O N C E R N S

You might notice that most of these ethics violations could easily happen accidentally. Directly lying

is unlikely to be accidental, but even in that case, the writer could persuade her/himself that the lie

achieved some “greater good” and was therefore necessary.

Even more common is an ethics violation resulting from the person who is designing the

information seeing it as evidence for whatever s/he understands as true and honestly not recognizing

the bias in how s/he has presented that information.

Most ethics violations in technical writing are (probably) unintentional, BUT they are still ethics

violations. That means a technical writer must consciously identify his/her biases and check to see if a

bias has influenced any presentation: whether in charts and graphs, or in discussions of the evidence,

or in source use (or, of course, in putting the crucial O ring information where the launch decision

makers would realize it was important).

For example, scholarly research is theoretically intended to find evidence either that the new

researcher’s ideas are valid (and important) or evidence that those ideas are partial, trivial, or simply

wrong. In practice, though, most folks are primarily looking for support. “Hey, I have this great new

idea that will solve world hunger, cure cancer, and make mascara really waterproof. Now I just need

some evidence to prove I am right!”

In fact, if you can easily find 94 high-quality sources that confirm you are correct, you might

want to consider whether your idea is worth developing. Often in technical writing, the underlying

principle is already well-documented (maybe even common knowledge for your audience) and the

point SHOULD be to use that underlying principle to propose a specific application.

Using a large section of your report to prove an already established principle implies that you are

saying something new about the principle—which is not true. A brief mention (“Research conducted

at major research universities over the last ten years (see literature review, Smith and Tang, 2010)

establishes that. . . .”) accurately reflects the status of the principle; then you would go on to apply that

principle to your specific task or proposal.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was written by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0. Thanks to Eleanor Sumpter-Latham, Humanities/

Writing Professor at Central Oregon Community College for contributing to this chapter.

TECHNICAL WRITING 101

9 . 4 E T H I C S A N D D O C U M E N T I N G S O U RC E S

The chapter titled “Citation and Plagiarism” stresses the importance of documenting your sources.

Documenting your sources includes showing exactly what you borrowed both where you used it and

in a Works Cited, Works, or References (the different terms reflect different documentation systems,

not just random preference) list at the end.

Including an item only in the source list at the end suggests you have used the source in the report,

but if you have not cited this source in the text as well, you could be seen as misleading the reader.

Either you are saying it is a source when in fact you did not really use anything from it, or you have

simply failed to clarify in the text what are your ideas and what comes from other sources.

Documenting source use in such a way as to either mislead your reader about the source or make

identifying the source difficult is also unethical—that would include using just a URL or using an

article title without identifying the journal in which it appears (in the Works Cited/References; you

would not likely identify the journal name in the report’s body). Unethical source use also includes

falsifying the nature of the source, such as omitting the number of pages in the Works Cited entry to

make a brief note seem to be a full article.

Unethical source use includes suppressing information about how you have used a source, such as

not making clear that graphical information in your report was already a graph in your source, as

opposed to a graph you created on the basis of information in the source.

Note that many problems in documenting sources occur because the writer is missing the point of

source use:

• you must clearly distinguish between your ideas and borrowed material,

• and you must use borrowed material primarily as evidence for your own, directly stated ideas.

If you blend source material together with your ideas (including as “your ideas” your analysis or

application of borrowed materials), you will indeed find that showing exactly what is borrowed versus

what is yours is impossible. That is because you cannot ethically blend your ideas together with

source material. Any time you find you cannot apply documentation principles, consider whether you

are using the source(s) unethically. Students often argue that they cannot separate their ideas from

borrowed ideas because they would then have to document the whole paper—if that is true, the paper

is most certainly not making “fair use” of the sources.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was written by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0. Thanks to Eleanor Sumpter-Latham, Humanities/

Writing Professor at Central Oregon Community College for contributing to this chapter.

102 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

9 . 5 E T H I C S , P L AG I A R I S M , A N D R E L I A B L E S O U RC E S

Unlike personal or academic writing, technical and professional writing can be used to evaluate your

job performance and can have implications that a writer may or may not have considered. Whether

you are writing for colleagues within your workplace or outside vendors or customers, you will

want to build a solid, well-earned favorable reputation for yourself with your writing. Your goal is to

maintain and enhance your credibility, and that of your organization, at all times.

Credibility can be established through many means: using appropriate professional language, citing

highly respected sources, providing reliable evidence, and using sound logic. Make sure as you start

your research that you always question the credibility of the information you find. Are the sources

popular or scholarly? Are they peer reviewed by experts in the field? Are the methods and arguments

used based on solid reasoning and sound evidence? Is the author identifiable and does s/he have

appropriate credentials? Be cautious about using sources that are not reviewed by peers or editor, or

in which the information seems misleading, biased, or even false. Be a wise information consumer in

your own reading and research in order to build your own reputation as an honest, ethical writer.

Quoting the work of others in your writing is fine, provided that you credit the source fully enough

that your readers can find it on their own. If you fail to take careful notes, or the sentence is present in

your writing but later fails to get accurate attribution, it can have a negative impact on you and your

organization. That is why it is important that when you find an element you would like to incorporate

in your document, in the same moment as you copy and paste or make a note of it in your research

file, you need to note the source in a complete enough form to find it again.

Giving credit where credit is due will build your credibility and enhance your document. Moreover,

when your writing is authentically yours, your audience will catch your enthusiasm, and you will feel

more confident in the material you produce. Just as you have a responsibility in business to be honest

in selling your product of service and avoid cheating your customers, so you have a responsibility in

business writing to be honest in presenting your idea, and the ideas of others, and to avoid cheating

your readers with plagiarized material.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was written by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0. Thanks to Eleanor Sumpter-Latham, Humanities/

Writing Professor at Central Oregon Community College for contributing to this chapter.

TECHNICAL WRITING 103

http://www.stc.org/about-stc/ethical-principles

9 . 6 P RO F E S S I O N A L E T H I C S

Many organizations and employers have a corporate code of ethics. If you are a technical writer

and you join a professional associations such as the Society of Technical Communicators you will

need to be aware their codes of ethics, published online (e.g. http://www.stc.org/about-stc/ethical-

principles). If you are a technical writer researching and writing a report within a specific professional

field, you will also need to be aware to that field’s codes of ethics. For example, let’s say you are writing

a report for a group of physical therapists on the latest techniques for rehabilitating knee surgery

patients. You should be aware of the code of ethics for physical therapists so that you work within

those principles as you research and write your report.

Look for the codes of ethics in your own discipline and begin to read and understand what will be

expected of you as a professional in your field.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was written by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0. Thanks to Eleanor Sumpter-Latham, Humanities/

Writing Professor at Central Oregon Community College for contributing to this chapter.

104 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

https://www.prismnet.com/%7Ehcexres/textbook/models.html#technical_reports

10. TECHNICAL REPORTS: COMPONENTS AND

DESIGN

Technical reports (including handbooks and guides) have various designs depending on the industry,

profession, or organization. This chapter shows you one traditional design. If you are taking a

technical writing course, ask your instructor for any design specifications she has for your documents.

The same is true if you are writing a technical report in a science, business, or government context.

Organizations very often have their own “stylesheets” on which all organizational document designs

are based, so make sure the design presented in this chapter is acceptable.

Technical reports have specifications as do any other kind of project. Specifications for reports

involve layout, organization and content, format of headings and lists, the design of the graphics, and

so on. The advantage of a required structure and format for reports is that you or anyone else can

expect them to be designed in a familiar way—you know what to look for and where to look for it.

Reports are usually read in a hurry—people are in a hurry to get to the information they need, the key

facts, the conclusions, and other essentials. A standard report format is like a familiar neighborhood.

When you analyze the design of a technical report, notice how repetitive some sections are. This

duplication has to do with how people read reports. They don’t read reports straight through: they

may start with the executive summary, skip around, and probably not read every page. Your challenge

is to design reports so that these readers encounter your key facts and conclusions, no matter how

much of the report they read or in what order they read it.

Be sure and see the example reports.

The standard components of the typical technical report are discussed in this chapter. The

following sections guide you through each of these components, pointing out the key features. As

you read and use these guidelines, remember that these are guidelines, not commandments. Different

companies, professions, and organizations have their own varied guidelines for reports—you’ll need

to adapt your practice to those as well the ones presented here.

Chapter Attribution Information

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

1 0 . 1 C OV E R L E T T E R

The cover letter is either attached to the outside of the report with a paper clip or is bound within

the report. It is a communication from you—the report writer—to the recipient, the person who

requested the report and who may even be paying you for your expert consultation. Essentially, it says

“Here is the report that we agreed I’d complete by such-and-such a date. Briefly, it contains this and

that, but does not cover this or that. Let me know if it meets your needs.” The cover letter explains the

context—the events that brought the report about. It contains information about the report that does

not belong in the report.

In the example of the cover letter that follows in the next section (10.2), notice the standard

business-letter format. If you write an internal report, use the memorandum format instead. In either

case, the contents and organization are the same:

First paragraph. Cites the name of the report, putting it in italics. It also mentions the date of

the agreement to write the report.

Middle paragraph. Focuses on the purpose of the report and gives a brief overview of the

report’s contents.

Final paragraph. Encourages the reader to get in touch if there are questions, comments, or

concerns. It closes with a gesture of good will, expressing hope that the reader finds the report

satisfactory.

As with any other element in a report, you may have to modify the contents of this letter (or memo)

for specific situations. For example, you might want to add another paragraph, listing questions you’d

like readers to consider as they review the report.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 107

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2016/09/exampleReport.gif

1 0 . 2 C OV E R PAG E

Be sure to create a cover page for your report. It’s a step that some report writers forget. Without a

label, a report is anonymous; it gets ignored.

The best way to create a cover page is to use your word-processing software to design one on

a standard page with a graphic box around the label information. Not much goes on the label: the

report title, your name, your organization’s name, a report tracking number, and a date. There are

no standard requirements for the label, although your company or organization should have its own

requirements. (An example of a report label is shown below.)

108 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

Transmittal letter and report cover (with cover label).

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 109

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2016/09/descriptiveReport.gif

1 0 . 3 A B S T R AC T A N D E X E C U T I V E S U M M A R Y

Most technical reports contain at least one abstract—sometimes two, in which case the abstracts play

different roles. Abstracts summarize the contents of a report, but the different types do so in different

ways:

• Descriptive abstract. This type provides an overview of the purpose and contents of the report. In

some report designs, the descriptive abstract is placed at the bottom of the title page, as shown in

the following:

110 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

Descriptive abstract. Traditionally, it is placed on the title page (not the cover page).

• Executive summary. Another common type is the executive summary, which also summarizes the

key facts and conclusions contained in the report. Think of this as if you used a yellow highlighter

to mark the key sentences in the report and then siphoned them all out onto a separate page and

edited them for readability. Typically, executive summaries are one-tenth to one-twentieth the

length of reports ten to fifty pages long. For longer reports, ones over fifty pages, the executive

summary should not go over two pages. The point of the executive summary is to provide a

summary of the report—something that can be read quickly.

If the executive summary, introduction, and transmittal letter strike you as repetitive, remember that

TECHNICAL WRITING 111

readers don’t necessarily start at the beginning of a report and read page by page to the end. They skip

around: they may scan the table of contents; they usually skim the executive summary for key facts

and conclusions. They may read carefully only a section or two from the body of the report, and then

skip the rest. For these reasons, reports are designed with some duplication so that readers will be

sure to see the important information no matter where they dip into the report.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

112 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2016/09/execTOC.gif

1 0 . 4 TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S

You are familiar with tables of contents (TOC) but may never have stopped to look at their design.

The TOC shows readers what topics are covered in the report, how those topics are discussed (the

subtopics), and on which page numbers those sections and subsections start.

In creating a TOC, you have a number of design decisions:

• Levels of headings to include. In longer reports, consider not including only the top two levels of

headings. This keeps the TOC from becoming long and unwieldy. The TOC should provide an at-

a-glance way of finding information in the report quickly.

• Indentation, spacing, and capitalization. Notice in the illustration below that items in each of the

three levels of headings are aligned with each other. Although you can’t see it in the illustration,

page numbers are right-aligned with each other. Notice also the capitalization: Main chapters or

sections are all caps; first-level headings use initial caps on each main word; lower-level sections

use initial caps on the first word only.

• Vertical spacing. Notice that the first-level sections have extra space above and below, which

increases readability.

Using the automatic TOC creator in your word processor can help you produce a clean, professional

document. If you prefer to make your own, learn to use dot leader tabs in order to line up the page

numbers correctly.

One final note: Make sure the words in the TOC are the same as they are in the text. As you write

and revise, you might change some of the headings—don’t forget to change the TOC accordingly. See

the example of a table of contents:

TECHNICAL WRITING 113

Table of contents (which comes first) then the executive summary. In a technical writing course, ask your instructor if the decimal-numbering

style for the table of contents and headings is required.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

114 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

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1 0 . 5 L I S T O F F I G U R E S A N D TA B L E S

If your document has more than two figures or tables create a separate list of figures. The list of

figures has many of the same design considerations as the table of contents. Readers use the list of

figures to quickly find the illustrations, diagrams, tables, and charts in your report.

Complications arise when you have both tables and figures. Strictly speaking, figures are

illustrations, drawings, photographs, graphs, and charts. Tables are rows and columns of words and

numbers; they are not considered figures.

For longer reports that contain dozens of figures and tables each, create separate lists of figures

and tables. Put them together on the same page if they fit, as shown in the illustration below. You can

combine the two lists under the heading, “List of Figures and Tables,” and identify the items as figure

or table as is done in the illustration below.

TECHNICAL WRITING 115

List of figures and tables followed by the introduction. If there are no tables, make it “List of Figures.” In a technical writing course, ask your

instructor if the decimal-numbering style for headings is required.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

116 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

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1 0 . 6 I N T RO D U C T I O N

An essential element of any report is its introduction—make sure you are clear on its real purpose

and contents. In a technical report, the introduction prepares the reader to read the main body of the

report.

See this example of an introduction:

TECHNICAL WRITING 117

List of figures and tables followed by the introduction. If there are no tables, make it “List of Figures.” In a technical writing course, ask your

instructor if the decimal-numbering style for headings is required.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

118 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

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1 0 . 7 B O DY O F T H E R E P O RT

The body of the report is of course the main text of the report, the sections between the introduction

and conclusion. Illustrated below are sample pages.

H E A D I N G S

In all but the shortest reports (two pages or less), use headings to mark off the different topics

and subtopics covered. Headings are the titles and subtitles you see within the actual text of much

professional scientific, technical, and business writing. Headings are like the parts of an outline that

have been pasted into the actual pages of the document.

Headings are an important feature of professional technical writing: they alert readers to upcoming

topics and subtopics, help readers find their way around in long reports and skip what they are not

interested in, and break up long stretches of straight text.

Headings are also useful for writers. They keep you organized and focused on the topic. When you

begin using headings, your impulse may be to slap in the headings after you’ve written the rough draft.

Instead, visualize the headings before you start the rough draft, and plug them in as you write.

Your task in this chapter is to learn how to use headings and to learn the style and format of a

specific design of headings. Here are a number of helpful tips:

• Make the phrasing of headings self-explanatory: instead of “Background” or “Technical

Information,” make it more specific, such as “Physics of Fiber Optics.”

• Make headings indicate the range of topic coverage in the section. For example, if the section

covers the design and operation of a pressurized water reactor, the heading “Pressurized Water

Reactor Design” would be incomplete and misleading.

• Avoid “stacked” headings—any two consecutive headings without intervening text.

• Avoid pronoun reference to headings. For example, if you have a heading “Torque,” don’t begin the

sentence following it with something like this: “This is a physics principle…..”

• When possible, omit articles from the beginning of headings. For example, “The Pressurized Water

Reactor” can easily be changed to “Pressurized Water Reactor” or, better yet, “Pressurized Water

Reactors.”

• Don’t use headings as lead-ins to lists or as figure titles.

• Avoid “widowed” headings: that’s where a heading occurs at the bottom of a page and the text it

introduces starts at the top of the next page. Keep at least two lines of body text with the heading,

or force it to start the new page.

TECHNICAL WRITING 119

If you manually format each individual heading using the guidelines presented in the preceding

list, you’ll find you’re doing quite a lot of repetitive work. The styles provided by Microsoft Word,

OpenOffice Writer, and other software save you this work. You simply select Heading 1, Heading 2,

Heading 3, and so on. You’ll notice the format and style are different from what is presented here.

However, you can design your own styles for headings.

120 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

Excerpt from the body of a technical report. In a technical writing course, ask your instructor if the decimal-numbering style for headings is

required. Also, a different documentation system may be required—not the IEEE, which is for engineers.

TECHNICAL WRITING 121

B U L L E T E D A N D N U M B E R E D L I S T S

In the body of a report, also use bulleted, numbered, and two-column lists where appropriate. Lists

help by emphasizing key points, by making information easier to follow, and by breaking up solid

walls of text. Always introduce the list so that your audience understand the purpose and context of

the list. Whenever practical, provide a follow-up comment, too. Here are some additional tips:

• Use lists to highlight or emphasize text or to enumerate sequential items.

• Use a lead-in to introduce the list items and to indicate the meaning or purpose of the list (and

punctuate it with a colon).

• Use consistent spacing, indentation, punctuation, and caps style for all lists in a document.

• Make list items parallel in phrasing.

• Make sure that each item in the list reads grammatically with the lead-in.

• Avoid using headings as lead-ins for lists.

• Avoid overusing lists; using too many lists destroys their effectiveness.

• Use similar types of lists consistently in similar text in the same document.

Following up a list with text helps your reader understand context for the information distilled into

list form. The tips above provide a practical guide to formatting lists.

G R A P H I C S A N D F I G U R E T I T L E S

In technical report, you are likely to need drawings, diagrams, tables, and charts. These not only

convey certain kinds of information more efficiently but also give your report an added look of

professionalism and authority. If you’ve never put these kinds of graphics into a report, there are some

relatively easy ways to do so—you don’t need to be a professional graphic artist. For strategies for

adding graphics and tables to reports, see the chapter on Creating and Using Visuals. See the chapter

on visuals for more help with the principles for creating visuals.

C O N C L U S I O N S

For most reports, you will need to include a final section. When you plan the final section of your

report, think about the functions it can perform in relation to the rest of the report. A conclusion does

not necessarily just summarize a report. Instead, use the conclusion to explain the most significant

findings you made in relation to your report topic.

A P P E N D I X E S

Appendixes are those extra sections following the conclusion. What do you put in appendixes?

Anything that does not comfortably fit in the main part of the report but cannot be left out of the

report altogether. The appendix is commonly used for large tables of data, big chunks of sample code,

fold-out maps, background that is too basic or too advanced for the body of the report, or large

illustrations that just do not fit in the body of the report. Anything that you feel is too large for the

main part of the report or that you think would be distracting and interrupt the flow of the report is

a good candidate for an appendix. Notice that each one is given a letter (A, B, C, and so on).

122 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

I N F O R M AT I O N S O U RC E S

Documenting your information sources is all about establishing, maintaining, and protecting your

credibility in the profession. You must cite (“document”) borrowed information regardless of the

shape or form in which you present it. Whether you directly quote it, paraphrase it, or summarize

it—it’s still borrowed information. Whether it comes from a book, article, a diagram, a table, a web

page, a product brochure, an expert whom you interview in person—it’s still borrowed information.

Documentation systems vary according to professionals and fields. For a technical writing class in

college, you may be using either MLA or APA style. Engineers use the IEEE system, examples of which

are shown throughout this chapter. Another commonly used documentation system is provided by

the American Psychological Association (APA).

PAG E N U M B E R I N G

Page-numbering style used in traditional report design differs from contemporary report design

primarily in the former’s use of lowercase roman numerals in front matter (everything before the

introduction).

• All pages in the report (within but excluding the front and back covers) are numbered; but on some

pages, the numbers are not displayed.

• In the contemporary design, all pages throughout the document use arabic numerals; in the

traditional design, all pages before the introduction (first page of the body of the report) use

lowercase roman numerals.

• On special pages, such as the title page and page one of the introduction, page numbers are not

displayed.

• Page numbers can be placed in one of several areas on the page. Usually, the best and easiest choice

is to place page numbers at the bottom center of the page (remember to hide them on special

pages).

• If you place page numbers at the top of the page, you must hide them on chapter or section

openers where a heading or title is at the top of the page.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 123

1 0 . 8 C O N C L U S I O N S

We normally use the word “conclusion” to refer to that last section or paragraph or a document.

Actually, however, the word refers more to a specific type of final section. If we were going to be fussy

about it, the current chapter should be called “Final Sections,” which covers all possibilities.

There are at least four ways to end a report: a summary, a true conclusion, an afterword, and

nothing. Yes, it is possible to end a document with no conclusion (or “final section”) whatsoever.

However, in most cases, that is a bit like slamming the phone down without even saying good bye.

More often, the final section is some combination of the first three ways of ending the document.

S U M M A R I E S

One common way to wrap up a report is to review and summarize the high points. If your report

is rather long, complex, heavily detailed, and if you want your readers to come away with the right

perspective, a summary is in order. For short reports, summaries can seem absurd—the reader thinks

“You’ve just told me that!” Summaries need to read as if time has passed, things have settled down, and

the writer is viewing the subject from higher ground.

Figure 1: Summary-type of final section. From a report written in the 1980s.

V I I I . S U M M A R Y

This report has shown that as the supply of fresh water decreases, desalting water will become a necessity. While

a number of different methods are in competition with each other, freezing methods of desalination appear to

have the greatest potential for the future. The three main freezing techniques are the direct method, the indirect

method, and the hydrate method. Each has some advantage over the others, but all three freezing methods have

distinct advantages over other methods of desalination. Because freezing methods operate at such low

temperatures, scaling and corrosion of pipe and other equipment is greatly reduced. In non-freezing methods,

corrosion is a great problem that is difficult and expensive to prevent. Freezing processes also allow the use of

plastic and other protective coatings on steel equipment to prevent corrosion, a measure that cannot be taken in

other methods that require high operating temperatures. Desalination, as this report has shown, requires much

energy, regardless of the method. Therefore, pairing desalination plants with nuclear or solar power resources may

be a necessity. Some of the expense of desalination can be offset, however . . .

124 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

“ T RU E ” C O N C L U S I O N S

A “true” conclusion is a logical thing. For example, in the body of a report, you might present

conflicting theories and explored the related data. Or you might have compared different models and

brands of some product. In the conclusion, the “true” conclusion, you would present your resolution

of the conflicting theories, your choice of the best model or brand—your final conclusions.

Figure 2: A “true”-conclusions final section. This type states conclusions based on the discussion

contained in the body of the report. (From a report written in the 1980s.)

V. C O N C L U S I O N S

Solar heating can be an aid in fighting high fuel bills if planned carefully, as has been shown in preceding sections.

Every home represents a different set of conditions; the best system for one home may not be the best one for next

door. A salesman can make any system appear to be profitable on paper, and therefore prospective buyers must

have some general knowledge about solar products. A solar heating system should have as many of the best design

features as possible and still be affordable. As explained in this report, the collector should have high transmissivity

and yet be durable enough to handle hail storms. Collector insulation should be at least one inch of fiberglass

mat. Liquid circulating coils should be at least one inch in diameter if an open loop system is used. The control

module should perform all the required functions with no added circuits. Any hot water circulating pumps should be

isolated from the electric drive motor by a non-transmitting coupler of some kind. Homeowners should follow the

recommendations in the guidelines section carefully. In particular, they should decide how much money they are

willing to spend and then arrange their components in their order of importance. Control module designs vary the

most in quality and therefore should have first priority. The collector is the second in importance, and care should

be taken to ensure compatibility. Careful attention to the details of the design and selection of solar heating devices

discussed in this report will enable homeowners to install efficient, productive solar heating systems.

A F T E R W O R D S

One last possibility for ending a report involves turning to some related topic but discussing it

at a very general level. Imagine that you had written a background report on some exciting new

technology. In the final section, you might broaden your focus and discuss how that technology might

be used, or the problems it might bring about. But the key is to keep it general—don’t force yourself

into a whole new detailed section.

Figure 3: Afterword-type final section. The main body of the report discussed technical aspects of

using plastics in main structural components of automobiles. This final section explores the future,

looking at current developments, speculating on the impact of this trend.

TECHNICAL WRITING 125

V I I . C O N C L U S I O N : F U T U R E T R E N D S

Everyone seems to agree that the car of the future must weigh even less than today’s down-sized models. According

to a recent forecast by the Arthur Anderson Company, the typical car will have lost about 1,000 pounds between

1978 and 1990 [2:40]. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration estimates the loss of another 350

pounds by 1995. To obtain these reductions, automobile manufacturers will have find or develop composites

such as fiber-reinforced plastics for the major load-bearing components, particularly the frame and drivetrain

components. Ford Motor Company believes that if it is to achieve further growth in the late 1980’s, it must achieve

breakthroughs in structural and semistructural load-bearing applications. Some of the breakthroughs Ford sees as

needed include improvements in the use of continuous fibers, especially hybridized reinforced materials containing

glass and graphite fibers. In addition, Ford hopes to develop a high speed production system for continuous fiber

preforms. In the related area of composite technology, researchers at Owens Corning and Hercules are seeking

the best combination of hybrid fibers for structural automotive components such as engine and transmission

supports, drive shafts, and leaf springs. Tests thus far have led the vice president of Owen Corning’s Composites

and Equipment Marketing Division, John B. Jenks, to predict that hybrid composites can compete with metal by

the mid-1980’s for both automotive leaf springs and transmission supports. With development in these areas of

plastics for automobiles, we can look forward to lighter, less expensive, and more economical cars in the next

decade. Such developments might well provide the needed spark to rejuvenate America’s auto industry and to

further decrease our rate of petroleum consumption.

C O M B I N AT I O N S

In practice, the preceding ways of ending reports are often combined. You can analyze final sections

of reports and identify elements that summarize, elements that conclude, and elements that discuss

something related but at a general level (afterwords).

Here are some possibilities for afterword-type final sections:

• Provide a brief, general look to the future; speculate on future developments.

• Explore solutions to problems that were discussed in the main body of the report.

• Discuss the operation of a mechanism or technology that was described in the main body of the

report.

• Provide some cautions, guidelines, tips, or preview of advanced functions.

• Explore the economics, social implications, problems, legal aspects, advantages, disadvantages,

benefits, or applications of the report subject (but only generally and briefly).

R E V I S I O N C H E C K L I S T F O R C O N C L U S I O N S

As you reread and revise your conclusions, watch out for problems such as the following:

• If you use an afterword-type last section, make sure you write it at a general enough level that it

does not seem like yet another body section of the report.

126 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

• Avoid conclusions for which there is no basis (discussion, support) in the body of report.

• Keep final sections brief and general.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon

Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey – CC: BY 4.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 127

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11. BASIC DESIGN AND READABILITY IN

PUBLICATIONS

The way a text looks matters to a reader, so it should matter to a writer. Letters, reports, and blogs are

more than just words on a page or a screen. How ideas are arranged and delivered in physical form,

whether electronically or on paper, can make reading seem intimidating, confusing, or downright

unfriendly, even if the content itself is perfect. Your text is like a room for your ideas. Sometimes you

want readers to get in and get out quickly, but often, you want them to sit down and make themselves

comfortable, to put their feet up and stay awhile. Whatever the case, you should be in control of the

reader’s experience.

And most readers are a lot like TV viewers with remote controls. In a moment, their attention is

diverted to another channel if something about your content puts them off. It’s important to get their

attention and hold it. Good content is a key part of this, of course, but the visual presentation of

your content matters too. Reading is a difficult, cognitively demanding task, so if your design helps

make your readers’ journey through the text easier, you will hold their attention longer. Give readers

reasons to linger, and they will.

Figure 1: Where do you want to spend the next two hours? Image Credit: “World’s Messiest Office

Cubicle Discovered in Colorado” by Jeffrey Beall is licensed under CC BY-ND 2.0; “laptop iphone” is

in the Public Domain, CC0.

Good document design is both science and art. The particular design of a document—what it

contains, what color scheme it follows, what alignment strategy it reflects, and so on—is the result of

a series of choices made by the designer. It takes a long time to master the finer points of design, and

this chapter won’t turn you into a designer, but it will offer some simple ways of thinking that will

help you strategize about how to make your document intuitive and reader friendly—easy to scan,

search, and read.

This is not a chapter on design per se; rather, it will familiarize you with a few basic truths and a way

of thinking that all designers know well. Whether you’re typing up a memo on new safety policies

at work, producing a newsletter for your community group, or putting together a booklet describing

the new app you just finished and wish to market, you need to think about a few basic elements of

document design.

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https://www.flickr.com/photos/denverjeffrey/1950409800

https://www.flickr.com/photos/denverjeffrey/

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/2.0

https://pxhere.com/en/photo/973300

http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/

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Figure 2: “Times 1788.12.04” by London Times is in the Public Domain. Just looking at the front page makes me tired.

ACTIVITY: Discuss texts that you have found intimidating or hard to read because of their layout or appearance.

What exactly made the text difficult to read?

You already engage in some basic document design practices. For instance, when you format an

academic essay, you center your title and regularly break to a new paragraph, which signals to

the reader that it’s time for a breather, the content is shifting slightly, or you are moving on to

a completely new topic. You illustrate blogs, Web pages, and PowerPoint slides with photos and

graphics, animations, or videos. Even small elements of your writing help guide readers: indentation,

changes in type style (bold, italics, underline), or the punctuation at the end of a sentence.

Professional writers, especially those who work for well-funded web sites and mass-market print

publications (like newspapers and magazines) are lucky enough to have the services of artists, graphic

designers, skilled photographers, and layout experts. But most of us just want to have a cooler-looking

blog, a more professional-looking report, or an eBay listing that doesn’t make buyers suspect our

credibility.

This chapter briefly summarizes some fundamental concepts that you should consider as you revise

and shape your text, whether it is in print or electronic form. Then, you will read about and see

examples of some basic principles of document design that allow writers to combine graphic elements

and text to convey a message to an audience.

CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION

This chapter was written by Jodi Naas, Portland Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0.

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1 1 . 1 O N S T Y L E C O N V E N T I O N S

Academic papers, cover letters and resumes, business plans, and other documents tend to follow

certain conventions. For example, MLA (Modern Language Association) and APA (American

Psychological Association) style dictate, among other things, exactly what academic papers should

look like. AP (Associated Press) style shapes the look of newspaper text, and IEEE (Institute for

Electrical and Electronics Engineers) style governs engineering articles and documents. For every

field in which you write, you’ll discover that field-specific style guides shape the appearance of a text,

the way language is used, the preferred terminology and vocabulary, and the way sources are cited.

In business and commerce, established firms like Panasonic, IKEA, eBay, Sears, and Trader Joe’s

have a style too. To preserve their brand identity, firms create recognizable, memorable logos and

make sure their documents follow a certain agreed-upon style. Government and civic organizations

have logos and letterhead too, and government and military documents are also the product of style

conventions.

When you are in school, you’ll be told to respect style, citation, and formatting conventions, like

MLA or APA. When you go into the professional world, you’ll need to find out what the field-specific

or company-specific style and citation conventions are. If you publish online, you should consult style

and formatting guides recommended by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).

ACTIVITY: Find a document or a Web page whose design makes it difficult for you to read and browse

the content. Try to identify what makes this particular page difficult to navigate.

Style conventions are important. When you are designing a document, you’ll need to know if a

particular style applies to it; for example, a cover letter should generally follow traditional business

letter format. Memos and emails might look slightly different; for example, we don’t expect to see an

address block for the letter recipient on an email because you don’t need to know someone’s street

address to reply to an email.

Many bemoan the lack of a consistent style on web pages; sometimes the way they look detracts

from their readability. And we often don’t know who wrote the text, where it comes from, or when it

was produced. Many people hesitate to assign real credibility to an undated, unsourced blog written

by a stranger—and rightly so. This is why sites like Wikipedia demand sources and format all entries

exactly the same. The “look and feel” of Wikipedia is now familiar to people around the world, and

it is used as a source in certain writing contexts, for good or for ill, precisely because there is some

predictable, reliable regularity to its content, and its easy-to-navigate entries are popular with readers.

TECHNICAL WRITING 133

However, producing good publications goes way beyond just observing style conventions; there are

a number of different concepts to consider and many important choices to make as you plan how best

to communicate your message, whether you do it on paper or onscreen.

Figure 3: Most readers know exactly what to do with a Wikipedia page. “Marie Curie” by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was written by Jodi Naas, Portland Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0.

134 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Curie

https://en.wikipedia.org/

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0

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1 1 . 2 C O N C E P T 1 : K N O W YO U R AU D I E N C E

To some extent, you already know ways in which the nature of your audience can affect your text.

In a class setting, other students and instructors will already be familiar with the assignment and

the subject matter about which you are writing. You already adjust vocabulary and tone to suit

your audience. Thinking about your audience’s potential needs, biases, knowledge, attitudes, and

preferences helps you present your text suitably.

To help you reach your audience, first consider the formats open to you. In some cases, the context

in which you’re writing and the audience for which you’re writing will determine the format(s) you

can use. You wouldn’t send a booklet full of images to a teacher to inquire about your child’s progress.

You can’t hand out copies of your blog at a music festival and expect it to get read right away.

ACTIVITY: Think of other audiences and writing contexts that require a particular format.

Second, consider the strengths and weaknesses of different formats for your particular audience. Are

they already familiar with the ideas you are conveying? Do they already know something about the

subject matter? What do they still need to know about it? Are there ideas that are likely to confuse

them?

How will your audience be interacting with the text? Will they be glancing at your poster as

they pass, or will they need to sit down and study your business plan? How much information do

you expect them to take in? How much time do they have to devote to reading? Do they agree

with you? How open to your message are they: Are they on your side, or do you need to persuade

them of something? Do you need to take their age, education level, language background, condition,

and cultural or social background into account? Knowing things about your audience can help you

communicate effectively with them.

TECHNICAL WRITING 135

Figure 4: Consider what your audience knows. To some audiences,

he’s a meme. To others, he’s an actor. Some don’t know who he is.

“Kevin Bacon” by Gage Skidmore is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0

You even need to consider readers’ familiarity with the format itself. Would your grandfather know

what to do when he sees a blue hyperlink on your blog? Would a third grader know how to unfold and

read a topographical map? Will differences in physical ability affect how your audience interacts with

your text? Does your audience need illustrations? Is a short video better than a text-only writeup for

your audience? Which formats allow you to provide the information your readers need?

Most Western readers expect text to flow from left to right. But readers of Arabic, Urdu, Farsi,

and Hebrew, for example, are accustomed to reading text from right to left. Twitter had to consider

this when they adapted their product for an Arabic-speaking audience. Other forms of information

are designed for different audiences with different preferences, background knowledge, cultural

concerns, and language backgrounds. Chapter 13 offers more information about communicating with

audiences whose backgrounds, language use, and cultural expectations are different from your own.

136 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

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Figure 5: A Canadian stop sign in English and French. “Information board, Beltany Stone Circle” by Kenneth Allen is licensed under CC

BY-SA 2.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 137

http://www.geograph.ie/photo/1925576

http://www.geograph.ie/profile/2282

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/doc-design-7.png

Figure 6: Multilingual road sign, Glendale, CA. Communities accommodate the needs of

diverse audiences when they communicate. “Mirar, Look, and whatever that says in

Armenian” by Eli Carrico is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0

You have a lot of formats to choose from: letters, papers and other printed pages, flyers (double

and single-sided), posters, booklets, a wide variety of multi-fold brochures or pamphlets, PowerPoint

presentations, blogs, apps, tweets, web pages, vlogs, videos, audio files, and so on. All of these formats

have strengths and weaknesses as delivery mechanisms for information.

ACTIVITY: Discuss the format(s) of the texts you are currently producing in class. Identify some features of your

text format might present challenges for your audience?

ACTIVITY: Discuss the benefits and drawbacks of different formats for conveying your information. For

example, what is helpful—and limiting—about using a trifold brochure to convey a message? A poster? A

short video?

Consider which audiences would be receptive to receiving this information in this format:

138 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

https://flic.kr/p/b1Ju1z

https://www.flickr.com/photos/shapeofthings/

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/doc-design-8.png

Figure 7: Some formats and some messages are not suitable for every audience.

(Public Domain image)

Figure 8: The Windows command line interface. FUN! Public Domain image.

TECHNICAL WRITING 139

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/doc-design-9.png

Figure 9: A graphical user interface for an open-source Linux operating system. Image Credit: KumarPriyansh, BackSlash Linux Elsa, CC

BY-SA 4.0

Think of what it meant to go from the interface above to the one below. Designers at PARC, Apple,

Atari, and later Microsoft realized that most people needed an easier way to interact with software

and hardware. Attention to the preference and experience of its users has consistently won Apple

Computer legions of loyal fans.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was written by Jodi Naas, Portland Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0.

140 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

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https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:KumarPriyansh

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BackSlash_Linux_Elsa.jpg

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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1 1 . 3 C O N C E P T 2 : K N O W YO U R P U R P O S E

It’s impossible to think of a piece of written communication without a purpose. Even if you are just

scribbling down whatever thoughts enter your head, you have a purpose: to express your own ideas.

Self-expression is a common purpose for written texts, but it’s not quite as important in academic

and professional settings. In fact, you may have to sublimate your personal feelings if the situation

calls for it. For instance, no matter how strongly you feel about being billed incorrectly for your

internet service, abusive language or profanity in business correspondence to your service provider is

generally not effective and may undermine your purpose entirely.

You should be clear about what you want to achieve with a piece of written communication or a

publication before you can think about design or the nature of your content. Unfocused publications

don’t communicate effectively, just as unclear, disorganized, or poorly supported arguments are far

less likely to persuade a reader. Before you fire up the software and start creating off the top of your

head, spend some time articulating your purpose. Are you trying to inform? Persuade? Instruct? What

is the best format for achieving your purpose? For example, trying to explain how to shoot a free

throw in prose only, with no visuals, is incredibly difficult no matter how skilled you are as a writer.

Your purpose may require diagrams, graphics, or even video. Some things are very difficult to express

in writing. The best way to teach people how to shoot free throws is to take them to the basketball

court and let them try it. Consider if your purpose can even be achieved in writing at all.

Also consider how many purposes you can manage at once, especially if your text needs to be brief.

A single short brochure that attempts to advertise the services at a community center, encourage

healthy eating habits, and persuade the audience of the benefits of a municipal bond measure will

probably fail on one or all counts. That’s a lot to cover in a short publication. A brief booklet that

explains the ins and outs of kitesurfing in Kailua will accomplish a lot more than a general “Travel

in Hawaii” brochure, which is likely to be pretty but not terribly informative. More specific, focused

content is nearly always more helpful and interesting to a reader. Don’t try to do too much in a short

format.

Sometimes your purpose is set for you. Readers of a business plan, for example, will expect certain

information: an executive summary, a rundown of marketing strategies, financial requirements and

assets, and a description of how the business will function. Know your audience, and make sure you

cover all the required or conventional elements that they will expect.

Failing to understand your purpose (and your audience’s needs, which drive your purpose) can

cause you to produce a publication that readers can’t use. Think of a garage sale sign with no dates

and no address. Readers of the sign won’t be able to use it, and they’ll just ignore it. Similarly, a flyer

for a kids’ soccer camp that doesn’t tell parents what they need to bring or doesn’t contain a schedule

of the daily program will get you a lot of annoying phone calls and emailed questions.

Most professional publishers plan scrupulously, then they produce many drafts and get tons of

TECHNICAL WRITING 141

feedback to ensure that their purpose is being achieved. Publications like brochures, booklets, and

posters are “mocked up,” or sketched out in advance, to determine what can be covered in the available

space, how many images or photos are needed, and how much text the writer needs to produce. Those

who produce Web sites or publications know what they want to achieve before they ever write a word,

and you should too. As Abe Lincoln once supposedly said, “If I had eight hours to chop down a tree,

I’d spend six hours sharpening my axe.” Creating a publication requires you to think in advance about

your purpose, your concept, your audience, your goals, your format, and your material needs (images,

graphics, text, headlines, color schemes, etc.). Do your due diligence so your final product will have

been worth the time you spent on it.

ACTIVITY: Imagine that you are producing a brochure to advertise a new gym/workout space that you plan to open

in your town or city. What goals (purposes) will you set for this publication? What types of information will you want

to convey? Who is your audience? What graphics or images will be most important?

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was written by Jodi Naas, Portland Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0.

142 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

1 1 . 4 C O N C E P T 3 : M A K E YO U R P U B L I C AT I O N M O R E I N V I T I N G U S I N G B A S I C

P R I N C I P L E S O F R E A DA B I L I T Y: C R A P

Despite the unfortunate acronym, CRAP is familiar to any graphic designer, and it should be familiar

to writers as well. It originated with the influential designer and writer Robin Williams; she now

regrets the acronym but not the ideas behind it.

I . C I S F O R C O N T R A S T: U S E D I F F E R E N C E TO D R AW R E A D E R S ’ E Y E S TO A N D T H RO U G H

YO U R T E X T O R P U B L I C AT I O N

You can see evidence of the most basic aspects of contrast in any Web page or magazine. The headline

text is always different from the body text. It’s often bigger and bolder; it can also be in a different

typeface. Headlines make it easy to skip from one story to the next and get a cursory understanding of

the news; news writers make it easy for people to read only the headlines in a newspaper or Web site.

Applying strong contrasting elements to your text is important because the human eye is drawn

to difference, not necessarily size. When everything looks the same, it’s difficult to focus on anything.

When things are different, they are more noticeable.

TECHNICAL WRITING 143

Figure 10: What stands out here? Don’t make your reader play a tough game just to get something out of your document. “Where’s Wally

World Record (where you there?)” by William Murphy is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0

144 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

https://flic.kr/p/9UE1YG

https://www.flickr.com/photos/infomatique/

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/cadets-903048_1920.jpg

Figure 11: Not as hard as Where’s Waldo?, but that’s the point. “Cadets” by skeeze is in the Public Domain, CC0

When a document has few or no contrasting elements, nothing stands out. The document isn’t easy

to scan, and it doesn’t invite the reader to jump in and read. It’s harder to parse, and therefore it’s

difficult for readers to glean information from the text easily and quickly, if that is their aim.

Figure 12: What stands out on this resume?

Tarr Nation

123 Fake Street

Beaverton, OR 97007

(123) 456-7890

[email protected]: The position of Front Desk Receptionist at Global Warranty

GroupSkills and Abilities:Computer skills. Skilled with general applications like Internet Explorer, and

Microsoft’s Office Suite,

and also with less-ubiquitous applications like Intuit QuickBooks and Sage Timeslips. Can learn to use

new programs quickly. Maintain hardware, for example printers and scanners.

Communication skills. Write numerous emails and letters to clients, insurers, and other Attorneys.

Comfortable making and receiving phone calls.

TECHNICAL WRITING 145

https://pixabay.com/en/cadets-army-crowd-donkey-mascot-903048/

https://pixabay.com/en/users/skeeze-272447/

http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/

Education:

Portland Community College, Portland, OR

AA in General Studies

Grad: June 2013

Related Course Work:

Writing 121, 122, and 227

Employment History:

September 2009-present

Fake Law Office, LLC, Beaverton, OR

Legal Assistant, Secretary, Office Manager, and Paralegal

November 2012-February2012

Fake Faker Fakest & Imaginary LLP, Portland, OR

Freelance Billing Assistant

Summer 2009 (June-August)

Camp Freedom, Cody, WY

Camp Councilor, Windsurfing Instructor

References:

Available upon request.

Some documents, like business letters or academic papers, have fewer contrasting elements, but even

line spacing and paragraph breaks help indicate where a related chunk of information begins and

ends.

Contrast helps draw the reader’s eyes to certain elements in your text, and it also helps the reader

follow the flow of the information and assess which items are most important and require immediate

attention. Contrast creates readability, so you must pay attention to contrast in your documents. The

following elements of a text can help you create a friendly, appealing sense of contrast:

C O N T R A S T E L E M E N T I : S I Z E

Your eye moves toward things because they’re different, not because they’re large or small. Your eye is

impressed by novelty more than sheer size or color or any other visual characteristic.

There are all sorts of scientific theories about why this is so, but in short, it’s not so much that

making something bigger makes it more noticeable. A person’s height, for example, isn’t so noticeable

until the principle of contrast comes into effect.

146 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

Figure 13: The Fierce Five, the US gold medalists in team artistic gymnastics at the 2012 London Olympics, meet President Obama at the

White House. They look fierce, but not so small. Starting third from left: Aly Raisman, Gabby Douglas, McKayla Maroney, Kyla Ross, and

Jordyn Wieber. “P111512PS-0165” by Obama White House is in the Public Domain

TECHNICAL WRITING 147

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/doc-design-12.png

https://flic.kr/p/dtxTSv

https://www.flickr.com/photos/obamawhitehouse/

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/Barack_Obama_with_artistic_gymnastic_McKayla_Maroney_2-1.jpg

Figure 14: “Barack Obama with artistic gymnastic McKayla Maroney 2” by Pete Souza is in the Public Domain Both are fierce, but one is

dramatically smaller. The contrast in size provides the visual drama, and pictures like these are favorite memes online.

There is such a thing as too much size contrast: think of those web sites with huge type or an overly

enthusiastic use of the CAPS LOCK key. Less is more, but some size contrast is essential to draw the

reader’s eye.

C O N T R A S T I I : F O N T S I Z E / S T Y L E / W E I G H T

A typeface is a collection of fonts. The distinction between the terms typeface and font stretches

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https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/Typefaces-sansserif.jpg

back to the days of typesetting: hand-placing individual letters made of wood or metal, inking

them, and rolling paper over them. In the digital age, most people use the words typeface and font

interchangeably, though the distinction still matters to experts like designers and typographers.

What’s important to most people is that we all have a huge variety of typefaces, or font families, to

choose from: Times New Roman, Arial, Bookman, Georgia, and Garamond are familiar to many of

us. It’s important to choose a font (a particular size, style, and weight within a typeface) that fits our

purpose. Some, like script and handwriting typefaces, are too hard to read and so aren’t appropriate

for body text, for example. Some typefaces work well as headlines: Franklin Gothic Condensed

and Caslon are two typefaces often used for newspaper headlines. The “font” chosen (size, weight,

style—italic, bold, etc.) will be the designer’s choice.

It’s also important to distinguish between serif and sans-serif fonts. Sans serif fonts, like Helvetica

or Futura, are simple and smooth; the letters don’t display the “feet” and ornamentation (serifs) that

serif fonts do. Sans serif fonts are often used for headlines, but serif fonts are more likely to be used for

body text. Many typographers think serif fonts (also called Roman fonts) make large blocks of body

text easier to read. Some of the preference is really just about tradition.

Figure 15: Three common sans serif typefaces (font families). Image Credit: Roger

Koslowski, Typefaces-sansserif, CC BY-SA 3.0

Figure 16: Baskerville, a nice serif typeface.

(Public Domain image)

TECHNICAL WRITING 149

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Roger_Koslowski&action=edit&redlink=1

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Typefaces-sansserif.jpg

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/doc-design-15.png

Figure 17: Each typeface family (like Helvetica) contains many sizes and many styles—light, regular, bold, italic,

condensed, lower case letters, upper case letters, small caps, schoolbook, old style, and so on. (Public Domain image)

150 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

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Figure 18: Canada is born! Note the large sans serif headlines and smaller serif

fonts used as body text. “Proclamation of Canadian Confederation” is in the

Public Domain

C O N T R A S T I I I : D I R E C T I O N ( V E RT I C A L , H O R I ZO N TA L , C I RC U L A R , E TC . ) O R P O S I T I O N ( TO P,

B OT TO M , S I D E )

Changing the direction or orientation of text, graphic elements like lines, banners, or screens (smaller

transparent or opaque boxes, often in a color that contrasts with the background)

TECHNICAL WRITING 151

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https://be.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB:Proclamation_Canadian_Confederation.jpg

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/1891WitchSpoonAd.png

Figure 19: Use interesting orientations to attract your readers’ attention. “Advertisement

from 1891 for the first “Witch Spoon”” is in the Public Domain

152 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1891WitchSpoonAd.png

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/doc-design-16.jpg

Figure 20: Note the image oriented on the diagonal and the opaque screen against which the text and logo are set. Sharp! “Tucker

Torpedo Brochure” by Alden Jewell is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 153

https://flic.kr/p/ocXJHR

https://www.flickr.com/photos/autohistorian/

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/5068143913_5ea8da64fb_o.jpg

Figure 21: Templates for flyers, newsletters, web pages, and

PowerPoint slides can help you provide visual interest if

you’re short on ideas. Image Credit: October Newsletter

Template, Word Draw, CC BY-2.0

C O N T R A S T I V: A L I G N M E N T (C E N T E R , L E F T, R I G H T, J U S T I F I E D)

Most students are familiar with how to align type. MLA and APA style, for example, mandate left-

aligned body text and a centered headline. MLA Works Cited pages call for a hanging indent of ½

inch. A change in alignment can create visual interest. For example, headlines are often centered to

make them noticeable.

Images are often placed in a particular location on a page (or slide) to draw readers’ attention in one

direction or another. Consistent alignment with slight variations to provide interest is particularly

important in PowerPoint presentations. You will be flipping from one slide to another, and if the text

blocks and headlines are not aligned identically, your text and headlines will appear to “jump around”

the screen in a distracting way.

154 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

https://www.flickr.com/photos/worddraw/5068143913

https://www.flickr.com/photos/worddraw/

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Figure 22: Templates for Publisher, PowerPoint, or other software packages help you keep track of every element of your

publication. (Public Domain image)

C O N T R A S T V: G R A P H I C E L E M E N T S L I K E P H OTO S , B A N N E R S / B A N D S , P U L L Q U OT E S , O R

LO G O S

Remember, we’re trying to create contrast, or difference—breaking up huge blocks of text with a

variety of graphic elements can really add visual appeal and interest.

Just remember—as with the examples below, less is more. Think of all the publications and web

sites you’ve seen whose designers thought it was awesome to make text bold AND underlined AND

multicolored AND flashing. With a bright yellow background. And too many animated GIFs. It repels

readers rather than attracting them. I know you know what I mean.

TECHNICAL WRITING 155

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/fig-23.png

Figure 23: Striking images and pull quotes contrast with less-distinctive elements, like text and background. “Fashion Magazine Layout”

by Aamir Raza is licensed under CC BY 2.0

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https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/8470414974_f6508578f6_z.jpg

https://flic.kr/p/dUv6gu

https://www.flickr.com/photos/aamirraza/

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TECHNICAL WRITING 157

Figure 24: This poster uses contrasting alignment, contrast in text, and simple color contrast

to create a dramatic effect. Less really can be more. “One-Third of a Nation, a Living Newspaper play by the Federal Theatre Project” by

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:One-Third-of-a-Nation-Poster-2.jpg is in the Public Domain

Figure 25: Complicated issues are sometimes hard to express visually. “How Our Laws Are Made” by Mike Wirth and Dr. Suzanne

Cooper-Guasco is licensed under CC BY 3.0

C O N T R A S T V I : C O LO R (O F B AC K G RO U N D, T E X T, G R A P H I C E L E M E N T S , E TC . )

Use color to make certain elements stand out. Create a sense of drama when you contrast one color

with another. Make sure you don’t use too many colors and your color combinations are easy to read.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/1024px-Visualization-of-How-a-Bill-Becomes-a-Law_Mike-WIRTH.jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Visualization-of-How-a-Bill-Becomes-a-Law_Mike-WIRTH.jpg

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 159

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Figure 26: Contrasting color in text, images, and design elements. Image Credit: “Credit Card Debt in the US” by GDS Infographics is licensed

under CC BY 2.0

C O N T R A S T V I I : U S E O F N E G AT I V E O R “ W H I T E ” S PAC E

Sometimes, the best way to attract a reader’s attention to a contrast is to “go negative.” The absence

of content provides air and space and draws the reader’s attention to the content itself. Negative

space, or white space, is the space around text, images, and other elements in a document. It makes

documents of all kinds (digital and print) more readable, more restful-looking, more inviting to the

reader, simpler, and more elegant. It is associated with that “high-end” restaurant or salon menu look.

160 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

https://www.flickr.com/photos/gdsdigital/4442855985

https://www.flickr.com/photos/gdsdigital/

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/1024px-French_laundry_carte.png

TECHNICAL WRITING 161

Figure 27: Case in point. High-end. “French laundry carte” by EncMstr is in the Public Domain

Figure 28: Not so high-end, but probably still delicious. Image Credit: Laika ac, Laika ac Pizza Restaurant Menu

(7953649854), CC BY-SA 2.0

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was written by Jodi Naas, Portland Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0.

162 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:French_laundry_carte.png

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:EncMstr

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/fig-29.png

https://www.flickr.com/people/[email protected]?rb=1

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Laika_ac_Pizza_Restaurant_Menu_%287953649854%29.jpg

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/deed.en

1 1 . 4 C O N C E P T 3 : M A K E YO U R P U B L I C AT I O N M O R E I N V I T I N G U S I N G B A S I C

P R I N C I P L E S O F R E A DA B I L I T Y: C R A P, C O N T I N U E D

I I . R I S F O R R E P E T I T I O N : R E P E AT D E S I G N S T R AT E G I E S T H RO U G H O U T YO U R D O C U M E N T TO

P ROV I D E A S E N S E O F C O N N E C T I O N

The basic rule of repetition means that in any text, visual or textual elements that have similar

functions should be formatted similarly in order to create continuity and show close relationships

between the elements.

For example, newspapers have consistent ways of labeling different sections, like Sports, but there

is also design consistency throughout the entire paper so you can tell that the section you just picked

up belongs to a particular newspaper. USA Today in particular is notorious for its consistent repeated

color coding and design.

TECHNICAL WRITING 163

Figure 29: USA Today’s mastery of repetition has made it instantly recognizable. Image Credit: truetrue, WSTM Mossmen0051, CC BY-SA

3.0

On a smaller scale, in a resume, most applicants use bullet-pointed sections to list their job duties.

“Repetition” in this context means that all these bullet points should be formatted identically: the

same font, size, line spacing, and indentation. Each group of bullet-pointed items should be the same

distance from the text above and below. The bullet points themselves should be exactly the same shape

and size. This can be a lot of things to keep track of!

Repetition also applies to styles like MLA or APA. All titles are centered. All page numbers are in the

upper right-hand corner, after your last name and a single blank character space. The same typeface

is used throughout the paper. All paragraphs have exactly one empty line space between them. And so

on.

Repetition means that every line classified as a “headline” should look like a headline, and headlines

formatted to look alike can be identified as headlines with a similar function in the text. The same

principle applies to body text. Fonts should not change without a reason. Lines, logos, and other

graphic/visual elements should be formatted consistently. This repetition provides a sense of order

and continuity that makes your document more readable and professional looking.

Since managing the formatting of multiple elements by hand can be difficult, many software

programs provide templates—ready-made layouts into which you can plug your text and photos and

164 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

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https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WSTM_Mossmen0051.jpg

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en

thereby produce a variety of documents with a consistent look and feel. Microsoft Word, for example,

also allows you to set Styles that will keep formatting choices like size, font, and style (bold, italic, etc.)

the same for blocks of text with the same functions (body text, headlines, bullet points, subheadings).

Figure 30: The Microsoft Word “Styles” menu.

Templates for newsletters, resumes, and PowerPoint presentations ensure that basic design elements

like font size/style, color, image size and alignment are consistent from page to page. Templates

provide a quick, easy way to solve repetition issues. Look at the difference repetition makes in even

the most basic of resumes, for example. Contrast the two below.

Figure 31: Whatever else you think about the design of this resume, choices made for typefaces,

size, position, and indentation are consistent. Each section is laid out identically.

Image Credit: brianna.lehman, resume, CC BY 2.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 165

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https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/4568685520_a3af28f380_o.jpg

https://www.flickr.com/photos/briannalehman/

https://www.flickr.com/photos/briannalehman/4568685520

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Figure 32: This applicant has made inconsistent line spacing, typeface, alignment and indentation, and

type size choices.

Image Credit: Author.

166 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/inconsistent.png

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

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TECHNICAL WRITING 167

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1 1 . 4 C O N C E P T 3 : M A K E YO U R P U B L I C AT I O N M O R E I N V I T I N G U S I N G B A S I C

P R I N C I P L E S O F R E A DA B I L I T Y: C R A P, C O N T I N U E D

I I I . A I S F O R A L I G N M E N T: T H E R E S H O U L D B E A C L E A R , D E L I B E R AT E A R R A N G E M E N T O F

I T E M S O N A PAG E

Alignment can refer to text, as in the left-aligned body text required in MLA style. But in document

design, it means much more; it refers to how the entire document is arranged. Most designers align all

their content to some sort of a grid or pattern, creating a distinct, intentional arrangement of items on

a page or screen. They use plenty of white space to cushion the items, which makes higher-contrast

items “pop.”

Imagine you’re hanging 20 pictures on a wall. You probably should not just throw them up there

randomly. You might measure and equalize distances between items, put unusual items in certain

places (like in the center), or put similarly shaped or sized items together. This will provide a sense of

order to your arrangement of the items.

168 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

Figure 33: Even though the arrangement of these items could seem random, there is some regularity, and there is an overall

shape or grid governing the position of each picture. Image Credit: “homestilo gallery wall” by homestilo is licensed under CC BY

2.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 169

https://www.flickr.com/photos/homestilo/31981861230

https://www.flickr.com/photos/homestilo/

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/06/doc-design-24.png

Software packages often allow you to draw lines or use an existing invisible grid to which you can

“snap” items like images, blocks of text, or graphics. Templates do the hard work of arranging items on

a page (or screen) for you. That’s why so many people use tools like WordPress, Illustrator, Publisher,

Word, and PowerPoint—they allow you to arrange items easily, without the hard work of lining

everything up by hand.

Newspaper and magazine layout artists once used various kinds of tape, contact cement (rubber

cement), or wax adhesives to stick cut-out headlines, text blocks, photos, and ads to a page, just to

produce a daily or weekly newspaper. To line up text and image blocks, they used wooden or metal

rulers, graph paper, and T-squares. It was slow, tedious work. And rubber cement smells. The digital

publishing revolution did away with all that. Most people who’ve spent half the night squinting over

a yearbook layout that just won’t line up are glad about the changes.

Figure 34: Thank heaven for desktop publishing and digital layout tools. (Public Domain image)

170 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

Figure 35: Much easier to put together, but some would argue that it lacks soul. But it’s readable, simple, clear, and accessible to anyone.

Image Credit: “WordPress main theme” by D135-1r43~commonswiki is released under GNU GPLv3.

Still, alignment problems have not all been solved in the digital era. See for yourself some of the results

of less deliberate alignment vs. controlled, arranged items on a screen, for example by visiting What

are some examples of bad web design?

TECHNICAL WRITING 171

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https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wordpress_main_theme.png

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:D135-1r43~commonswiki

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:GNU_General_Public_License

https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-examples-of-bad-web-design

Figure 36: Before and after images show how alignment affects the usability of this website. Image credit: “Welcome To The

New A. Dawn Journal” by Ahmed Dawn is licensed under CC BY 2.0

Learning how to arrange text and images artfully on a page takes tons of time, not to mention a

whole email inbox full of user feedback, collaboration, thought, and hard work. This chapter will only

acquaint you with some of the most basic elements of design. Perhaps after reading this chapter, you’ll

start seeing CRAP wherever you look.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

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https://www.flickr.com/photos/adawn/2659113775/

https://www.flickr.com/photos/adawn/

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1 1 . 4 C O N C E P T 3 : M A K E YO U R P U B L I C AT I O N M O R E I N V I T I N G U S I N G B A S I C

P R I N C I P L E S O F R E A DA B I L I T Y: C R A P, C O N T I N U E D

I V. P I S F O R P RO X I M I T Y: I T E M S T H AT H AV E S I M I L A R F U N C T I O N S O R P U R P O S E S S H O U L D

B E G RO U P E D TO G E T H E R

Is this a rock formation or just a random collection of boulders?

Figure 37: Is there any purpose to this grouping? Image Credit: “Small Tree In Field Of Rocks” by Linnaea Mallette is in the Public Domain,

CC0

TECHNICAL WRITING 173

https://www.publicdomainpictures.net/en/view-image.php?image=153280&picture=small-tree-in-field-of-rocks

http://linnaeamallette.com/

http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/

Figure 38: There is purpose to this grouping. This is the Ham Hill Stone Circle in Somerset, England. It’s a deliberate

product of modern England, it was constructed in the year 2000 to commemorate local stonemasons and

the long history of quarrying local hamstone. “Ham Hill Stone Circle” by Gaius Cornelius is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0

The second photo depicts a deliberate grouping, though it probably wasn’t hard to figure that out.

When we work with pictures and blocks of text and not stones, think of this: when design or text

elements are placed next to each other in certain ways, readers or viewers can see that they are meant

to be considered together and have some sort of relationship. For example, photos and figures have

captions that explain their contents. Nearby images often illustrate the content found in body text.

Headlines are placed above body text whose content and focus they describe in briefer form.

Proximity can be especially critical in booklets, newsletters, and brochures, in which certain pages

or panels might be grouped together under a subheading. Individual pages can be designed to reflect

a larger relationship with the overall theme or subject matter. For example, the themes provided by

blogging platforms like WordPress take care of this for you—every page will have a recognizable

layout and though individual pages might be slightly different, they’ll be recognizably related to the

blog’s main page. Web sites work the same way, as do book chapters.

The principle of proximity even affects white space: equal amounts of white space and equal line

spacing indicate that items are related or should be considered as parts of a whole. If headlines,

captions, or body text blocks aren’t close enough to the image or text to which they are related, the

reader could be confused about what is—and is not—related.

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https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ham_Hill_Stone_Circle.jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Gaius_Cornelius

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0

TECHNICAL WRITING 175

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Figure 39: What does emphasis indicate in this ad? Are prunes and flour different

types of eggs on offer? “1945 – Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company – 16 Feb MC –

Allentown PA” by Allentown Morning Call Newspaper is in the Public Domain

Figure 40: What’s going on here? Image credit: Venn Diagram of language issue space by KDS4444 is CC0, Public Domain

The Venn diagram above is very confusing. Why are there different font weights, sizes, and quotation

marks setting off the words? Note that entries for the “Acceptable” lavender category are in both

the top left and bottom right of the circle. Their relatively distant position (proximity) makes the

relationship of these terms unclear. There are no headlines or labels here to help us understand, and

the design strategy isn’t doing readers any favors.

Planning and adjusting how items are grouped on a page helps you design your text, graphics, and

images so that readers can see what’s related, what goes together, what’s different, and what is similar.

Relationships between items will be clear.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Venn_Diagram_of_language_issue_space.svg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:KDS4444

https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en

Figure 41: Who’s together here? Martakis jennifer lopez by Universal Music Greece is in the public domain.

It’s clear which two are the couple in the illustration above. Same with headlines and body text, groups

of bullet points, images and captions, and a whole lot more. What is close together will be seen to have

a relationship. Moving items further away decreases the strength of that relationship in the minds of

your readers.

TECHNICAL WRITING 177

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https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Martakis_jennifer_lopez.jpg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:public_domain

ACTIVITY: Go online or out into the world. Try to find examples of publications (print or electronic) that convey

messages clearly. Critique them according to the principles in this chapter: Purpose, Audience, and CRAP. Also, find

an example of one that does not achieve its goal. See if you can identify and describe which of these principles are

not being followed in less-effective publications.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

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178 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

1 1 . 5 S L I D E S A N D P O W E R P O I N T P R E S E N TAT I O N S

TO P O W E R P O I N T O R N OT TO P O W E R P O I N T ?

Microsoft introduced PowerPoint in 1990, and the conference room has never been the same.

Millions were amazed by the speed with which a marketing professional or an academic could put

together a consistent, professional-looking slide presentation. And then…

At some point, somebody with critical thinking skills asked a great question: “Do we really need

all these slide shows?” The stock images of arrows, businesspeople in suits, stick figures scratching

their heads, and the glowing, jewel-toned backgrounds eventually looked tired and failed to evoke the

“wow” reaction presenters desired.

Microsoft is attempting to refresh the design options for PowerPoint, and there are dozens of

good alternatives, some of them free (Keynote, Slide Bureau, Prezi, SlideRocket, Easel.ly, Emaze,

Slidedog). But the fundamental problem remains—text-heavy, unfocused, overlong presentations are

the problem, not the software. If you are sure that a visual presentation will provide something

necessary to your audience, keep the number of slides and the amount of text on each slide to a bare

minimum. Think of a slide presentation as a way of supporting or augmenting the content in your

talk; don’t let the slides replace your content.

If you had planned to read your slides to the audience, don’t. It’s considered one of the single most

annoying things a presenter can do. Excessively small text and complex visuals (including distracting

animations) are frequently cited as annoyances.

Try to design your slides so that they contain information that your viewers might want to write

down; for example, good presentations often contain data points that speakers can’t just rattle off or

quick summaries of key concepts that viewers won’t be able to make up on the fly. If you can’t explain

how the slides add value to your presentation, don’t use them.

To get a feel for what may annoy your audience, try Googling “annoying PowerPoint presentations.”

You’ll get a million hits containing helpful feedback and good examples of what not to do. And finally,

consider designing your presentation to allow for audience participation instead of passive viewing

of a slideshow—a good group activity or a two-way discussion is a far better way to keep an audience

engaged than a stale, repetitive set of slides.

T I P S F O R G O O D S L I D E S

All of the design guidelines in this chapter—CRAP in particular—will help you design consistent,

helpful, and visually appealing slides. But all the design skill in the world won’t help you if your

content is not tightly focused, smoothly delivered, and visible. Slides overloaded with text and/or

images will strain your audience’s capacity to identify important information. Complex, distracting

TECHNICAL WRITING 179

transitions or confusing (or boring) graphics that aren’t consistent with your content are worse than

no graphics at all. Here are some general tips:

• Simplicity is best: use a small number of high-quality graphics and limit bullet points and text.

Don’t think of a slide as a page that your audience should read.

• Break your information up into small bites for your audience, and make sure your presentation

flows well. Think of a slide as a way of reminding you and the audience of the topic at hand.

• Slides should have a consistent visual theme; some pros advise that you avoid using the stock

PowerPoint templates, but the Repetition and Alignment aspects of CRAP are so important that if

you don’t have considerable design skill, templates are your best bet. You can even buy more

original-looking templates online if you don’t like the ones provided with the software.

• Choose your fonts carefully. Make sure the text is readable from a distance in a darkened room.

Practice good Repetition (the “R” in CRAP) and keep fonts consistent.

• Practice your presentation as often as you can. Software is only a tool, and the slide projector is

not presenting—you Realizing this is half the battle.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

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180 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

1 1 . 6 C O N C L U S I O N

Texts are forms of nonverbal (or not exclusively verbal) communication aimed at a particular

audience. They are always expressions of some set of goals or purposes. They can contain visual

elements, sound, textual elements, graphic elements, and even textures (think of a book of fabric

samples). There is a vast array of tools to help you communicate whatever you wish to any audience

you choose. Reaching a large audience has never been easier, but the very fact that you may be

communicating with many different kinds of people creates new challenges for you as a

communicator. Providing clear, easy-to-access texts is critical. Being clear about your message is

vitally important. Just as there’s never before been an audience as vast and diverse as the global

internet, there’s never been a greater chance that you will be ignored, misinterpreted, misunderstood,

criticized, or even trolled. If you adhere to basic design principles, at least you will be safe from the

most basic kinds of criticism aimed at confusing PowerPoint presentations, distractingly busy web

sites, or cheesy-looking brochures.

Content is like water—it takes on the shape of whatever you pour it into. Therefore, the container

that holds your text does matter. However, content is also like water in another sense. If it’s no good,

no one will want to drink it down. It won’t quench anyone’s thirst for knowledge, for instructions,

for information. Good content, a focused, clear purpose, and careful attention to the needs of the

audience will ensure that if your container is appealing, your message will shine through, and you will

achieve your goal as a writer.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

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TECHNICAL WRITING 181

12. EMPLOYMENT MATERIALS

Employment materials are some of the most important, and most challenging, pieces of writing you

will ever undertake. This is because of the number of contradictions involved in writing employment

materials. The résumé is both a simple list of your job history, and a referendum on your

qualifications; you must show your passion for the job you are applying for, but too much passion

is over-the-top. Your job application (cover) letter is an evidence-backed statement of your

achievements, a clear representation of your personal brand, and the first writing sample a potential

employer will see. Add to that one more challenge: your materials must be concise, and yet also

comprehensive. If accomplishing all these tasks at once feels daunting, you are not alone.

The aim of this chapter is to ease your mind and demystifying the job application process by giving

you some core principles to follow. Whether you are applying to be an administrative assistant or an

engineer, a web developer or a caregiver, many of the strategies are the same. As you read through

this chapter, keep the following principles in mind:

• The more customized your materials are, the more successful they will be — generic materials are

unlikely to capture an employer’s attention.

• Your materials should demonstrate not why this job would benefit you, but instead how you, as a

unique candidate, can benefit your potential employer.

• Your materials should not simply list every job you’ve ever held, but emphasize transferable skills,

making an argument for how your past accomplishments prepare you for the job you are applying

for.

To tailor your materials to a specific audience is to work smarter, rather than harder. In fact, tailoring

is one of the core principles of technical writing — a principle you read about in the audience analysis

chapter of this text. Imagine yourself in the position of a hiring manager. Would you be more likely

to hire a candidate whose generic résumé looks like it has been sent to dozens of similar employers?

Or would you be more likely to hire a candidate who has researched your business and understands

what the job entails?

CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION

This chapter was written by Megan Savage, Portland Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0.

http://www.careerbuilder.com/

1 2 . 1 P R E PA R AT I O N

Spending adequate time preparing to write your employment materials can save you many headaches

in the drafting process. This section of the chapter covers strategies that can help in your job search.

F I N D I N G A J O B

Finding a suitable job opening itself can be a time-consuming process. Here are a few resources to get

you started:

• Job boards: browse sites like Indeed, CareerBuilder, Glassdoor and Monster to search for jobs in

your field.

• Specialty job lists: look for lists of jobs in specific industries such as food service (Poached),

nonprofits (Idealist), or media (MediaBistro)

• Company, organization and government web sites: visit the employment section on websites of

companies you admire; search federal, state, county, and city websites for job government job

postings.

• Your own network: talk to friends, past employers, and professors or visit LinkedIn to search for

openings at companies in your network.

• Your college: visit your college or university placement office/career center and attend job fairs

hosted at your college.

Many job seekers also use craigslist to look for work; just be aware that craigslist postings often lack

detail and may come from headhunters or placement agencies, rather than from the direct employer.

Once you have found a job, make sure to print and/or save a copy of the job posting or job

description. You will use this document to help you tailor your application materials. Because

companies often delete the job posting once they have received sufficient applicants, it is important

that you save your own copy of the document by copying the text and pasting it into a new document,

or by saving the webpage.

C O N D U C T I N G A S E L F – I N V E N TO R Y

As you work on your resume, you may worry that you have nothing valuable to include, or you may

worry that you are “bragging.” One way to get over these hurdles is to allocate pre-writing time to a

self-inventory. Brainstorm your skills, accomplishments and knowledge. What did you accomplish at

work, school, or a volunteer position? What skills have you learned? What would you tell a friend or

family member you were proud of having achieved there? Start writing down key terms and action

TECHNICAL WRITING 185

http://www.indeed.com/

https://www.glassdoor.com/index.htm

http://www.monster.com/

https://portland.poachedjobs.com/

http://www.idealist.org/

https://www.mediabistro.com/

http://www.linkedin.com/

verbs that describe your experiences and accomplishments, and don’t worry yet about putting them

into a résumé format.

Try this

For help brainstorming action verbs that describe your skills, browse a key term list such as the one below. First, scan

the groupings of skills (Communication Skills, Creative Skills, Financial Skills etc.) for key terms related to skills you have

or work you have done. Then, write down 1) categories of skills you have (again, Communication Skills, Creative Skills,

Financial Skills etc.) and 2) action verbs that describe skills you have or work you have done (e.g. analyzed, performed,

calculated, advocated, etc.).

Communication/
People Skills Creative Skills

Management/
Leadership Skills Helping Skills

Organizational
Skills

Collaborated Combined Assigned Aided Arranged

Communicated Created Coordinated Arranged Categorized

Developed Developed Decided Assisted Distributed

Edited Drew Improved Contributed Organized

Incorporated Illustrated Led Cooperated Recorded

Proposed Planned Managed Encouraged Responded

Suggested Revised Oversaw Helped Updated

Synthesized Shaped Recommended Motivated Tracked

Translated Crafted Reviewed Supported Monitored

Facilitated Conceived Supervised Prepared Synthesized

Mediated Established Delegated Bolstered Adapted

Table adapted from Creating Resumes I by Roads to Success, licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.

As you gather information about your work history and skills, double check that your information is

accurate and current – gather dates of employment, dates of trainings, lists of activities you have been

involved in, academic awards, achievements and special projects. Job descriptions or performance

reviews from previous jobs can also include key terms to include on your resume. Finally, ask former

coworkers or managers about your significant workplace contributions.

Try this

Get a partner and a piece of paper. Take ten-minute turns speaking and scribing. The speaker should describe past work

history and experience, especially as it relates to the job at hand. The scribe should take notes while listening to her

partner’s description, taking care to note any key terms she hears. The scribe should also ask questions that help the

speaker go into detail about the experience (who, what, when, where, why?). Finally, the scribe should help identify any

skills or achievements the speaker may not realize he or she has; sometimes we have a skill that we don’t recognize,

because we assume it is something everyone can do. Then, switch.

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http://www.roadstosuccess.org/

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0

R E S E A RC H I N G YO U R P OT E N T I A L E M P LOY E R

It is important that you research your potential employer as well as the job for which you’re applying.

The easiest way to research a potential employer is to visit the company’s website. Look for an “about

us” page or a “mission statement,” and observe how the company describes its goals and values.

Try to answer the following questions about the company or organization:

• Whom does this company serve?

• Who are this company’s partners or competitors?

• What technologies would I use at this company?

• What is the tone of this company’s materials (formal, conservative, humorous, “cutting edge,” etc.)?

• How would you describe this company’s brand?

Here are a few more ways to research a company: search for its name on LinkedIn and other social

media sites, browse for news articles about the company or press releases written by the company,

speak with friends or colleagues who work for the company, or call the company to request an

informational interview.

As you research, look for ways to connect with the company:

• What do you admire about the company?

• Where do your values and interests overlap with those of the company?

• What makes this company a good fit for you?

Try to summarize your connection to the company in one sentence. Remember that your potential

employer is also your audience, and adapt your tone, examples, and level of technicality accordingly.

R E S E A RC H I N G T H E P OT E N T I A L J O B

To research the job itself, take advantage of the job description you have found. The job description is

your secret weapon; in this document, you are told what the employer is looking for in a candidate.

Print out the job description and annotate it; get into a conversation with it:

• Highlight or underline any qualifications that you hold — any skills you have, technologies

you’ve used, etc.

• Make note of any past achievements that relate to any of the preferred qualifications. For

example, if the job description seeks a candidate who can diagnose and solve technical problems,

write down an example of a specific time in which you did so in a professional or academic setting.

• Circle any key terms you might use in your own materials. Using the same terms as a potential

employer demonstrates to that employer that you are able to “speak their language.”

• Note any questions/uncertainties and any qualifications you do not have in order to decide

what to highlight and what to downplay in your materials (as well as what you need to learn more

about).

TECHNICAL WRITING 187

http://www.linkedin.com/

Try this

Make a word cloud of your job description, using a site like www.wordle.net (you will cut and paste the text of the job

description into a word cloud generator – note that you might have to try a few different programs before you find one

that’s compatible with your computer.) A word cloud presents text as a visual display, reorganizing content so that the

largest words are those that appear most frequently (see Figure 1). A word cloud can be a helpful visual tool to identify key

terms to use in your resume and cover letter. You might also be surprised to find that a “big word” (a commonly repeated

key term) is one that you would not automatically associate with the job.

In Figure 1, below, we see how some of the words are obvious terms we would expect to find in a children’s museum job

description – museum, children, exhibits, playing, etc. However, diversity” and “diverse” are both large terms, too. If you

were applying for this job, you would now know to talk about your commitment to diversity/experience working with

people from diverse backgrounds.

Figure 1 Portland Children’s Museum Experience Facilitator Job Description as a Word Cloud

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was written by Megan Savage, Portland Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0.

188 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

http://www.wordle.net/

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2017/09/word-cloud.png

http://www.linkedin.com/in/anonymous

1 2 . 2 R E S U M E F O R M AT S

The purpose of a résumé is twofold:

• A résumé is an overview of your skills, experience, and education as they relate to your career

objective, and

• A résumé is a marketing tool that conveys your “personal brand.”

All of us want our résumés to stand out from the stack. However, the best way to create an eye-

catching résumé is not through gimmicks or flash, but rather through substance and customization.

F O R M AT S : C H RO N O LO G I C A L R É S U M É V S . F U N C T I O N A L ( S K I L L S ) R É S U M É

Work histories come in a variety of forms; so do résumés. Although career experts enjoy debating

which style is the best, ultimately you must consider which fits your current situation. Which style

will allow you to best package your work history, and convey your unique qualifications?

The chronological résumé is a traditional format whose principal section is the “Employment

Experience” section. In the chronological résumé’s “Employment Experience” section, jobs are listed

in reverse chronological order, and achievements/skills are detailed underneath each position.

In contrast, a functional (skills) résumé, features a well-developed “Skills & Achievements”

section, in which skills are organized into categories. The functional resume still includes an

“Employment Experience” section, but it is streamlined to include only the basic information about

each position held.

A hybrid (or combination) résumé includes a well-developed “Skills & Achievements” section that

highlights the candidate’s most important and relevant skills, but it also includes select bullets under

each job in the “Employment Experience” section.

The following pages contain examples of chronological, functional (skills), and hybrid résumé

formats.

E X A M P L E O F T H E C H RO N O LO G I C A L R É S U M É F O R M AT

TINA SPARKLES

123 Address | City, State 01234

10.1234.5678 | [email protected]

TECHNICAL WRITING 189

E D U C A T I O N

AAS: Portland Community College 2010 | Sign Language Interpreting

BA: University of Colorado, Boulder 2007 | Psychology

Certifications: Certificate of Interpretation, Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf | Certificate of Transliteration,

Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf

E X P E R I E N C E

Staff Sign Language Interpreter | St. Joseph’s, Boulder CO | September 2014 – present

Provide Sign Language Interpreting to approximately 15 Deaf adults with pervasive mental illnesses in a Partial

Hospitalization setting. Provide interpreting for staff meetings, therapeutic groups, psychiatry sessions, and

medication monitoring.

Educational Sign Language Interpreter | Boulder High, Boulder CO | August 2011 – June 2014

Provided Sign Language Interpreting for Deaf and Hard of Hearing High School students in day-to-day activities

including academic classes, assemblies, after-school clubs, varsity sports, class trips, and more.

Interpreter Intern | Portland Community College, Portland OR | January 2010 – June 2010

Provided Sign Language Interpreting services for one deaf college student for all of her day-to-day activities

including academic classes, after-school clubs, advising sessions, and more.

Customer Service | Kaiser-Permanente Medical Center, Clackamas OR | 2008 – 2010

Provided members with information pertaining to benefits, enrollment, and coverage. Assisted members with

benefits-related questions and concerns, resolving problems and supporting members with special needs.

ACTIVITIES

Volunteer | Denver Homeless Family Solutions | January 2016 – present

Prepare and serve meals, collect and sort donations, overnight host.

PROFESSIONAL MEMBERSHIPS

National Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf

National Association of the Deaf

N OT E T H AT T H E C H RO N O LO G I C A L R É S U M É :

• Lists both work and education in reverse chronological order (starting with the most recent

positions/schools and working backward)

• Lists job achievements and skills under each position

190 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

• Presents experience under headings by job title, company, location, and dates of employment

• Allows employers to easily determine work performed at each company

E X A M P L E O F T H E F U N C T I O N A L ( S K I L L S ) R É S U M É F O R M AT

Downtown,
Portland, Oregon

97035

Anonymous
Personal Résumé

M 971.123.4567
[email protected]

www.linkedin.com/
in/anonymous

Graphic Design major with about 10 years full-service agency experience, from creative marketing material design to print
management and coordination with a wide range of clients. A passionate and dedicated designer, capable of handling a
large workload and tight deadlines. Working toward B.A degree in Graphic Design.

EXPERIENCE

Print
Management

Managed 5000 copies MTT company calendar printing process, from finalizing artwork to output file check, paper stock
selection, color proofing, print finishing, and delivery deadline coordination.

Event
Management

Designed and organized a company anniversary cocktail event for a new client – INSTINET Hong Kong, receiving positive
feedback from client’s guest and resulting in 3years event management contract with Pink Tiger Media.

Editorial Design
with
Collaborative

Designed and collaborated with Prince of Wales Island International School on production of 16pp program book, received
positive feedback from every division of the school and resulted in more business to Priority Resources design team.

EDUCATION

Portland State
University
Portland Community
College

Equator Academy of
Art

B.A Degree Graphic Design – Expected enrollment 2018
Associate Transfer Degree – 2016-present

Diploma in Graphic and Multimedia Design – 2004-2006

EMPLOYMENT

Senior Graphic
Designer
2013 – 2015

Priority Resources – Penang, Malaysia
Editorial design, Web interface design, vendor coordination

Jr. Art Director
2012-2013

Pink Tiger Media – Penang, Malaysia
Team management, Event management, Marketing campaign, Visual communication, vendor coordination

Graphic Designer
2006-2011

Moonlight Media & Design – Penang, Malaysia
Exhibition design, Branding & Identity design, Print design, Product branding, Typography, Event management

Trainee Graphic
Designer
2006

Dolphin Printing – Penang, Malaysia
Print production, Packaging, Customer service

ADDITIONAL

Honors Awarded $3,000 tuition scholarships from Portland State University (2017-2018)

Languages English, Bahasa Malay, Chinese: Mandarin, Cantonese, Hokkian, Hakka

This resume is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0.

N OT E T H AT T H E F U N C T I O N A L ( S K I L L S ) R É S U M É :

• Focuses on skills and experience, rather than on chronological work history

• Groups functions or skills under categories

TECHNICAL WRITING 191

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0

• Describes responsibilities, accomplishments, and quantifiable achievements under categories in

the skills section

• Typically opens with a brief summary/profile detailing strengths (one-three sentences)

• Demonstrates how you match the requirements of your potential job by including relevant

achievements and accomplishments

E X A M P L E O F T H E H Y B R I D R É S U M É F O R M AT

Anthony Swift

1234 Happy Lane, Hillsboro, Oregon 97006 · [email protected] · 971-555-1212

Summary

Electrical engineering major with experience in testing, analyzing and developing digital systems. Strong written

communication skills and experience working with diverse cultural backgrounds.

Skills and Abilities

Technical Skills

• Designed and built a pulse and breathing monitor which required over 40 hours of troubleshooting.

Involved circuit design and building, and circuit analysis. Required a good knowledge of reading

electrical component schematics and basic programming with an Arduino.

• Proficient in Windows, Mac, Office Suite: Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Access.

Organization and Professional Development Skills

• Coordinated finals study sessions with staff of ten math instructors and more than 100 students in

attendance.

• Organized and planned community clean-up events while delegating tasks to a team of 15 students.

• Planned S.T.E.M. (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) panel consisting of six

professionals from various industries, providing students the opportunity to learn about different

career paths.

Instruction Skills

• Managed foreign teacher organization, communications, and hiring. Introduced innovative teaching

methods to staff and created exciting classroom environments for Chinese students.

192 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

mailto:[email protected]

• Maintained communications between management and foreign staff using Mandarin Chinese while

ensuring high teaching standards were maintained. Trained new foreign teachers as well as

overseeing three education centers to verify quality of teaching.

Education

Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering, Oregon Tech, (2016 – 2019)

Associates of Science Degree, Portland Community College, GPA: 3.8 President’s list – 7 quarters (2013-2016)

Chinese Language, Beijing Language University, Beijing, China (2009-2010)

Work Experience

Math Tutor, Portland Community College, Portland, Oregon (2014 – 2016)

Gave special instruction to students to help simplify difficult math concepts and walk students through critical

thinking process to solve difficult problems. Instructed students working on advanced mathematics courses.

Math Club President, Portland Community College, Portland, Oregon (2014 – 2016)

Organized finals study sessions for the college with over 100 students attending each session. Facilitated events

with panels of working professionals giving students access to vital information about pursuing specific majors.

Hosted weekly study sessions to help struggling students successfully pass math exams.

Data Entry Specialist, Seamless Systems, Portland, Oregon (2013 – 2014)

Maintained national database of legal documentation with extensive use of Microsoft Access.

Head Foreign Teacher and Trainer, KidsCan!, Beijing, China (2010 – 2012)

Worked with Chinese investors and management to create a training curriculum for the Hubei Province region.

Instructed foreign teachers and developed fun team-building activities that created strong bonds between the

staff. Mediated between foreign and Chinese staff when language barriers were present.

Anthony Swift Resume is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0.

There are many reasons to choose one format over another. In brief, the chronological résumé

serves candidates with a long/uninterrupted work history, in fields where the company worked for

is of paramount importance. On the other hand, the functional résumé serves candidates who are

transitioning between fields, candidates shifting from a military to a civilian career, or candidates

who have gained skills in a variety of different settings (workplace, academic, volunteer). The hybrid

resume offers the best of both worlds.

Because functional (skills) and hybrid résumé formats are the easiest to customize for a number of

different potential employers, the following section of this chapter (Key Sections of a Résumé) will

emphasize those formats.

TECHNICAL WRITING 193

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C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was written by Megan Savage, Portland Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0.

194 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

1 2 . 3 R E S U M E S E C T I O N S A N D G U I D E L I N E S

K E Y S E C T I O N S O F A R É S U M É

Whatever format you choose, employers will expect to see certain key sections. There is some room

for creativity in organization and phrasing, but make sure to be thorough. Each number in the list

below corresponds to a section on the sample résumé that follows; as you read through the list, refer

to the sample résumé to see how the section appears in context.

1. Contact Info: Create a header that includes your address, telephone number,

professional e-mail address, and possibly a Linkedin page.

2. Headline (Also called Summary, Profile or Highlights of Qualifications): include a

brief summary of your professional self to grab your reader’s attention. Think of this

section as your “elevator pitch,” offering a quick impression of your personal brand.

Include a few key (relevant) achievements/strengths (in bullets or sentences).

Summary/profile sections are especially useful for candidates with a long work history,

or who have experienced job transitions. Here are two formulas for a one-sentence

headline:

– “Accomplished [job title]/Certified [industry] professional holding more than [x] years

of experience, specializing in [x,y,z].”

– “[Field of study] graduate seeking opportunity to focus on [x,y,z,] and promote

[desired company’s mission or goal].”Have you been starting your résumé with an

Objective statement? These days, most experts recommend leaving the objective off

your résumé entirely. Objectives too often emphasize what you want from a job, rather

than what you can offer an employer, and thus are generally seen as a waste of space.

3. Skills/Achievements/Qualifications:

– Use sub-headers to group skills into skill set headings (management skills, customer

service skills, laboratory skills, communication skills, etc.). Use targeted headings based

on the qualifications your potential employer is seeking.

– Include only the most relevant, targeted skills and achievements.

– Emphasize quantifiable achievements and results: skills, equipment, money,

documents, personnel, clients, etc.- Use the active voice (supervised sixteen employees,

increased profits, built websites) vs. the passive voice (was responsible for supervising

or duties included…)

– See the “Building a Better Bullet” section below for more information on how to craft

an effective “skill bullet.”

4. Employment Experience:

– List positions in reverse chronological order (most recent first).

TECHNICAL WRITING 195

– Include basic information for each job: job title, employer, dates employed, city/state

(and country if outside the U.S.) of employment.- Include internships and skilled

volunteer positions (but if you do, title the section “Experience” rather than

“Employment”).

– Consider filtering work experience into “Related Experience” and “Experience”

instead of one employment section to highlight most relevant jobs (and downplay less

significant experience).

5. Education:

– Place your education section after the headline/summary section if it is recent and

relevant, after the experience section if your stronger qualification is employment

experience.- List the most current degree/school attended first, and proceed in reverse

chronological order.

– Include the following information for each educational item: the name of the school,

the school’s location, your graduation date or anticipated graduation date, the degree

earned (and major if appropriate).- DO NOT include high school if you are in college

unless your high school work was outstanding or unique (like a trade/technology/arts

high school).

– DO include trainings and certifications (e.g. first aid certifications, sales seminars,

writing groups).

– Develop this section by adding educational accomplishments:

o Your GPA (if it is 3.0 or better, and if it is expected in your industry)

o Relevant courses (if they prepared you for the job)

o Special accomplishments (conferences, special papers/projects, clubs, offices held, service

to the school)

o Awards and scholarships (could also be separate section – Honors)

6. Optional Sections (not included in Figure 5):

– Volunteer Work: List skilled volunteer work (building websites, teaching classes)

under skills, along with your other qualifications, but include general volunteer work

(making meals for a soup kitchen, etc.) toward the end of your resume in its own

section or under activities.

– Activities:

o DON’T include a section titled “Hobbies” or “Other,” with irrelevant interests.

o DO include interests that may be relevant to the position, but aren’t professional skills

(sports for Nike, Eagle Scouting for leadership, golfing for business jobs, game design/play

for game design jobs, blogging for PR jobs). Market yourself in the best light.

o DO include honors, awards, publications, conferences attended, languages spoken, etc.

You may choose to include a separate honors section or fold these into your skills/

achievements section.

7. References: Do not list references on your résumé. Instead, give a separate sheet at the

employer’s request. Generally, three references are sufficient. The most important

references are your superiors, but you can also use co-workers, clients, or instructors.

Contact each person to verify his/her willingness to act as a reference for you. Your

reference sheet should match the look of your cover letter and your résumé.

196 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

MIA SANTIAGO
123 Four Street · City 10110 · 123.456.7890

[email protected] · www.website.com
←1

PROFILE
Business student with extensive retail experience and award-winning customer service skills. Successfully
implemented social media presence and branding to improve sales. Strong written communication and graphic
design background. Fluent in Spanish.

←2

EDUCATION

A.A.S. Business (Will Graduate 2018)
Portland Community CollegeAdditional Coursework in Graphic Design
Great Sales Seminar, 2015, 2016
Customer Service Training, Macy’s, 2015

←3

SKILLS

Customer Service

◦ Received “Outstanding Customer Service” Award, 2016

◦ Assisted up to 100 customers daily in locating merchandise and making purchasing decisions

◦ Increased monthly sales approximately $1,000 by utilizing add-on sales techniques

◦ Supported customers by fielding and resolving key concerns

◦ Effectively handled irate customers and complaints in a friendly, patient manner

Merchandising/Marketing

◦ Assisted manager in analyzing sales and marketing trends for purchasing seasonal merchandise

◦ Launched and managed social media presence to increase sales

◦ Created innovative in-store displays and promotional materials

◦ Stocked, priced, and inventoried merchandise

Administrative

◦ Produced daily, weekly, and monthly sales reports

◦ Balanced cash drawer with consistently high level of accuracy

←4

EXPERIENCE

Retail Associate, Macy’s, Portland, OR Dec 15 – present
Sales Representative, Target, Portland, OR Sept 14 – Dec 15

Server, Otis Café, Lincoln City, OR Jan 12 – Sep 14
←5

R E S U M E G U I D E L I N E S

The following tips will help you write a résumé that adheres to the conventions employers expect

while ditching fluff in favor of expertise.

Using “Me” and “I”:

The convention in a résumé is to write in sentence fragments that begin with active verbs.

Therefore, you can leave out the subjects of sentences. Example: “I eliminated the duplication

of paperwork in my department by streamlining procedures” would become “Eliminated

paperwork duplication in a struggling department by streamlining procedures.”

Quantifiable Skills:

The more you can present your skills and achievements in detail, especially quantifiable detail,

the more authoritative you will sound. This means including references to technologies and

equipment you have used; types of documents you have produced; procedures you have followed;

languages you speak; amounts of money you have handled; numbers of employees you have

supervised or trained; numbers of students you have taught; technical languages you know; types

TECHNICAL WRITING 197

mailto:[email protected]

of clients you have worked with (cultural backgrounds, ages, disability status – demographic

information that might be relevant in your new workplace); graphic design, blogging or social

media skills; and so on.

Filler Words (Fluff):

Avoid generic, filler words that can be found on many resumes and don’t suggest meaningful

skills. Filler words include: “team player,” “results-oriented,” “duties include,” “fast-paced,” and

“self-motivated.” If you MUST use these phrases, find concrete examples to back them up. For

example, instead of using “team player,” include a time you collaborated with peers to earn a good

grade on a project, save your company money, or put on a successful work event.

Results:

In at least one place in your resume, preferably more, make mention of a positive impact (or

result) of your skills/achievements. How did you create positive change for your employer,

coworkers or customers? Did you resolve a customer complaint successfully? Did you make a

change that saved your employer money? Did you build a website that increased traffic to your

client? Did you follow procedures safely and reduce workplace injuries?

Building a Better Bullet (Two Skill Bullet Formulas):

Each skill bullet may need to go through a few revisions before it shines. Here are two formulas

to help you strengthen your bullets:

Formula 1: Verb + Details = Results

Start your bullet with an action verb describing a skill or achievement. Follow it with the details

of that skill or achievement, and then describe the positive impact of your achievement. For

example:

▪ Developed (VERB) new paper flow procedure (DETAILS), resulting in reduced staff

errors and customer wait times (RESULT)

▪ Provided (VERB) friendly customer-focused service (DETAILS) leading to customer

satisfaction and loyalty (RESULT)

▪ Organized (VERB) fundraising event (DETAILS) generating $xxx dollars for

nonprofit (RESULT)

▪ Provided (VERB) phone and in person support for patients with various chronic and

acute health issues (DETAILS & RESULT COMBINED)

▪ Supported (VERB) 8-10 staff with calendaring, files and reception (DETAILS),

increasing efficiency in workflow (RESULT)

Formula 2: Accomplished [X] as measured by [Y] by doing [Z]

Develop your bullets by going into detail about how you accomplished what you have

accomplished and why it matters to your potential employer. Compare the following three

versions of the same skill bullet:

▪ First Draft: Participated in a leadership program

198 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

▪ Second Draft: Selected as one of 125 for year-long professional development

program for high-achieving business students

▪ Final Draft: Selected as one of 125 participants nationwide for year-long

professional development program for high-achieving business students based on

leadership potential and academic success

Note how the third version is not only the most specific, but it is the one that most demonstrates

the “so what” factor, conveying how the applicant’s skills will benefit the potential employer.

Key Terms:

Remember, use key terms you gathered in your pre-writing, preparation phase (from the job

description, research into your field, and the “action verb” list presented earlier in this chapter).

If your potential employer is using a résumé -scanning program, these key terms may make the

difference between getting an interview or a rejection.

Length:

Résumé length is a much-debated question, and guidelines change as the genre changes with

time. In general, the length of a résumé should be no longer than one or (at most) two pages

(and each page should be full — no 1.5 page résumés). Some fields, however, may have different

length conventions (academic resumes, for example, which include publications and conference

attendance, tend to be longer). If your resume is on the longer side, your work history should

justify the length. Some experts recommend one page per ten years of work history; while that

may be extreme, it is better to cut weaker material than to add filler.

Design:

Résumé design should enhance the content, making it easy for the reader to quickly find the most

significant and relevant information. See the chapters on Document Design for overall design

tips.

A few general guidelines:

▪ Templates are handy, but bear in mind that if you use a common template, your

résumé will look identical to a number of others.

▪ Use tables to align sections, then hide the borders to create a neat presentation.

▪ Use ten-twelve point font.

▪ Don’t use too many design features — be strategic and consistent in your use of

capitalization, bold, italics, and underline.

▪ To create visual groupings of information, always use more space between sections

than within a section. This way your reader will be able to easily distinguish between

the key sections of your résumé, and between the items in each section.

▪ Use the same font in your résumé and your cover letter to create coherence.

TECHNICAL WRITING 199

Field-Specific Conventions:

You may find that there are certain conventions in your field or industry that affect your choices

in writing your résumé. Length, formality, design, delivery method, and key terms are just some

of the factors that may vary across disciplines. Ask faculty or professional contacts in your field

about employers’ expectations, visit your school’s career center, or conduct web research to make

informed field-specific choices.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was written by Megan Savage, Portland Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0.

200 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

1 2 . 4 C OV E R L E T T E R S

B AC K G RO U N D

In the era of social media, the idea of writing a cover letter to introduce your resume may seem

outdated. However, the cover letter still serves a few critical functions. If the resume is characterized

by breadth (giving a broad overview of your qualifications), the cover letter is characterized by

depth (choosing a few most significant qualifications to cover in detail). Written in paragraphs rather

than bullet points, the cover letter is the first writing sample your employer will see from you. In

paragraphed prose, it is easier to market your unique qualifications and how you will fit in with the

culture of the company. An effective cover letter will create a picture of you as a potential employee,

and inspire a potential employer to learn more about you.

Keep the following tips in mind as you write your cover letter:

• Your cover letter is essentially an argument for why you should be granted an interview. Make

sure to support the claim that you are qualified for the position with evidence. Demonstrate your

authority by speaking in detail about your qualifications, and SHOW the reader that you have the

skills and abilities necessary to do the job at hand. The more detail you offer and the more precise

your language is, the more the reader will be able to picture you doing the job. See the sample

cover letter below for examples of “showing.”

• Use your audience analysis research to help you connect with the company and to choose the

appropriate tone, level of formality, and level of technicality.

• Follow the format for professional letters found in the Professional Communications chapter.

O U T L I N E

A general outline for cover letters:

1. Salutation: Make your best attempt to find a specific name (or at least the job title) of the person

to whom you should address this letter. If you cannot find the name, you may address the letter

“Dear Hiring Manager.”

2. Opening Paragraph: State why you are writing, specifically naming the position to which you

are applying. Indicate how you learned about the position (networking if you can). In one

sentence, use your audience analysis research to establish a connection with the company.

Finally, in one sentence, summarize your strongest qualification/s for the job.

3. Body Paragraph(s): Build each paragraph around a key qualification or professional strength

that relates to the job for which you are applying. Open the paragraph with a claim about this

qualification/strength, and then provide a developed illustration of a time in your work or

TECHNICAL WRITING 201

academic history when you used/excelled at this skill, or used it to benefit others. For example,

if the job requires excellent customer service skills, you might discuss a time in which you used

your customer service skills to diffuse a conflict or increase your company’s profits. It can be

effective to conclude your middle paragraphs with sentences that express how these past

experiences prepare you for the potential job.

4. Closing Paragraph: Thank the reader for his or her time and consideration. Gesture towards an

interview. You may explicitly request an interview, or you may wish to include a phrase like “I

look forward to discussing my qualifications with you in person, soon.” If there is any

information the reader should know about getting in touch with you, include it; if your phone

number and email address do not appear elsewhere in the cover letter, include them here. You

may refer the reader to your enclosed resume.

S A M P L E C OV E R L E T T E R

12248 SE Wilderness Dr.
Portland, OR 97214April 29, 2017Mr. Doug Jones
Director of Human Resources
EVZ
600 Minnow Lane
Seattle, WA 12345Dear Mr. Jones:

At Portland State University’s computer science job fair on April 9, 2017, I
met with your representative, Ms. Karen Lincoln, regarding your entry-level
Database Administrator opening. Not only am I a DBA and SQA certified CIS
specialist, but I also have over a decade of experience in the steel and
manufacturing industry EVZ specializes in. My strong manufacturing and
technological background prepares me to help EVZ continue your impressive
track record of safety improvements.

Introductory Paragraph
Your introduction should discuss the following:

– The title of the job for which you are applying

– Where you heard about the position

– A connection with the organization and its
goals

– How your experience matches the position

– How you will help the organization achieve its
goals

From my conversation with Ms. Lincoln and your online information, it’s clear
you are looking for someone who not only has technical skills, but who
understands the steel industry. Within six months at United Steel Mill, I was
promoted from Clerk to Machine Operator, largely as a result of my attention
to detail and ability to collaborate. In three years, I had worked my way up to
Plant Safety Coordinator, Quality Control Database Administrator, and Floor
Trainer. While in those roles, I implemented a plant-wide safety program,
saving my company roughly $15 million in recovered product, and reducing
accidents by over 25%. In addition to demonstrating my understanding of the
steel industry, this experience demonstrates the kinds of skills EVZ seeks:
accuracy, integrity, and strong problem-solving skills.

Body Paragraph 1
This paragraph should discuss the following:

– More connection with company goals/mission

– Support for your claim that you can help them
achieve goals/mission

– Specific example based on information in
résumé

– How you will help the organization

I have a BA degree in Computer Information Systems and an AAS in Network
Administration; through my experiences, I have become very familiar with all
aspects of Database Administration. In my position as Database Intern for
Work Inc., I enrolled users, maintained system security, and monitored user
access to the database, with 30-40 concurrent users at any given time. At
Portland State, I maintained a 4.0 GPA, was admitted to Phi Theta Kappa, and
was placed on the President’s List every term – a standard I will bring to EVZ.

Body Paragraph 2
This paragraph should discuss the following:

– More detail on position requirements

– More detail supporting your claim that your
experience fulfills these requirements

– Specific example based on information in
résumé

– How you will help the organization

202 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

EVZ has grown rapidly for twenty years, and I would like to speak with you to
discuss how my experience can aid your commitment to improving safety,
quality and processes as you continue to grow. Enclosed is my resume, and
you can reach me at 503-555-6237 [email protected] with questions.
Thank you for your time and consideration. I look forward to meeting with
you soon.

Closing Paragraph
This paragraph should do the following:

– State your main objective: an interview

– Provide contact information

– Close the letter in a professional manner,
thanking the reader

– Provide signature block

– Provide enclosure information

Sincerely,
John Ice

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TECHNICAL WRITING 203

mailto:[email protected]

1 2 . 5 N E X T S T E P S

S U B M I T T I N G YO U R M AT E R I A L S

Once you are ready to send out your materials, remember the following guidelines:

• Proofread carefully! Do not rely on Spell-check alone. Proofread by reading your work backward

one sentence at a time (using this strategy helps you focus on sentence-level writing rather than on

content and “flow”). Ask a few friends to help you proofread before you send it out.

• Make sure your verb tense, font, and design choices stay consistent throughout.

• If you are submitting your documents as hard copies, use high-quality paper.

• If you are submitting your documents electronically, consider saving your documents as PDF files,

so that the formatting is preserved (PDF files are also widely readable).

• If you are e-mailing your materials:

◦ Send the materials as attachments to a brief, introductory e-mail.

◦ Consider ALSO including the résumé in the body of the e-mail (in case the employer is wary of

attachments).

◦ Do not replace a job application letter with an e-mail. Job application letters are formal enough

to warrant formal letter format.

◦ Send a copy to yourself first to make sure it opens and is formatted properly.

M O D U L A R M AT E R I A L S

You may be thinking that it sounds like a lot of work to create a new set of employment materials for

every job opening you have identified. While it is true that it takes time and effort to customize, you

do not have to create a new resume and cover letter from scratch for every job opening. Instead, you

can create “modular” materials with moving parts that you can simply adapt and reorganize for each

job.

For example, let’s say you are a nursing student, and you are looking to work in a related field while

you are in school. You might be happy as an administrative assistant in a clinical setting, as a medical

translator, or as a biology tutor. If you use the functional (skills) resume format, you might create 3

different “templates” of your résumé that each emphasizes and expands upon different skill categories,

administrative, communication, and educational. Each of these résumés, however, would stress your

medical background.

The same holds true with the cover letter. Once you have a draft cover letter, you can work with it

204 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

as a template for numerous other jobs, keeping the overall format but revising some key sentences. It

is quite likely that the final paragraph of your cover letters will never change. The central paragraphs,

on the other hand, may undergo substantial revision, depending on how different one potential job is

from another. Just make sure to always change the name of the potential employer; no matter what

the skill level of the potential job, addressing a potential employer by the wrong name is the surest

way to remove your application from consideration.

Résumés and cover letters are two documents in an “ecology” of documents related to the

employment process: job descriptions, interview questions, the thank-you note you send after an

interview, writing samples, and hiring materials are just a few other documents you might find

yourself reading and writing as your hiring process moves forward.

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TECHNICAL WRITING 205

13. COMMUNICATING ACROSS CULTURES

The goal of this chapter is to consider the current cultural perspective where you have been writing

and begin to think about readers and colleagues from another culture. This is a start of the

conversation, to be sure; it is not meant to be an exhaustive examination of culture(s). Rather, the

intent is to start where you are—with a product of technical communication you have created this

term, for context, with your own current cultural understanding(s)—and to reconsider your own

perspective and how it affects your technical writing process.

This chapter begins with understanding culture as a construct and then examines your own

influences and contexts. Later in the chapter, the focus is looking at relationships between cultures

and, at times, considering cultural revisions in context of your own writing.

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1 3 . 1 U N D E R S TA N D I N G C U LT U R E

Let us begin with this working definition:

Culture consists of the shared beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, values, and assumptions shared by an identified

group of people.

In technical writing context, an “identified group of people” could be as identified through

prewriting work, as in Chapter 2.1 “Types of Audiences”.

Try this

For deeper meaning, revisit the definition italicized above after you read each of the following five items. As you do, think

about these in terms of classroom expectations. Then, think about these in terms of any workplace experiences you have.

Are there any difference or similarities? How did you learn these conventions?

As you work through this chapter, remember these five things about culture:

1. It is learned. Geert Hofstede views culture as consisting of mental programs, calling it softwares

of the mind, meaning each person “carries within him or herself patterns of thinking, feeling, and

potential acting which were learned throughout their lifetime.” Similarly, Peter Senge argues

that mental models lock individuals and groups into a specific perception about the world. Like

a computer, we are programed to act or behave in certain ways. The conscious and unconscious

learning we undergo, over time, turns into beliefs that we consider to be valid. We then teach

each other that these beliefs are cultural norms, and they are then expressed in our daily lives as

behaviors and actions.

2. It is shared. Although you may think of yourself as an individual, you share beliefs, rituals,

ceremonies, traditions, and assumptions with people who grew up or live in similar cultural

backgrounds. It is easier for you to relate to someone who has shared value systems and ways of

doing things than someone who does not share the same values. The patterns of culture bind us

together and enable us to get along with each other.

3. It is dynamic. Culture is dynamic and thus complex. Culture is fluid rather than static, which

means that culture changes every day, in subtle and tangible ways. Because humans

communicate and express their cultural systems in a variety of ways, it can be hard to pinpoint

exactly what cultural dynamics are at play. It is important to pay attention to the cultural context

of a communication to understand the depths of its dynamic properties.

4. It is systemic. In systems theory, systems are interrelated interconnected parts that create a

TECHNICAL WRITING 209

whole. There are patterns of behavior, deeply rooted structural systems, which are beneath the

waterline. What we see at the top of the iceberg are the behaviors; we do not see what

contributes to those behaviors. To address the system, one must be able to address the

underlining patterns. These patterns, because they are deeply embedded in the system, will take

up significant effort, time, and resources. Changes to the system are slow and gradual; visible

changes may not appear until months, or even years, later.

5. It is symbolic. Symbols are both verbal and nonverbal in form within cultural systems, and they

have a unique way of linking human beings to each other. Humans create meaning between

symbols and what they represent; as a result, different interpretations of a symbol can occur in

different cultural contexts.

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210 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

https://hbr.org/web/assessment/2014/08/whats-your-cultural-profile

1 3 . 2 U N D E R S TA N D I N G C U LT U R A L C O N T E X T

Before you move forward in addressing other cultures, take a quick survey to see where you identify

individually. Erin Meyer, in her book The Culture Map: Breaking through the Invisible Boundaries of

Global Business, explores not just expectations and understandings informed by culture but also how

different cultural context thresholds affect transcultural communication.

For starters, you might take Meyer’s self-assessment questionnaire: What’s Your Cultural Profile.

Try this

Take a moment to reflect on your results. Is there anything you learned that you did not know about your cultural profile?

Is there anything you do not understand about the results? This is a good place to share via discussion with your colleagues

about what you found and see if you have any obvious similarities with anyone in your class that you may not have known

before.

Now that you have a partial idea of your cultural profile, take a moment to watch these two videos.

First, in this YouTube video, Meyer discusses context: “Low Context vs High Context Societies.” Next,

view this video from Meyer’s webpage that discusses “upgraders” and “downgraders” and their role in

culture and disagreement: “Lost in Translation.”

In technical writing, we often conduct a piece of communication for a given reader, but how often

do you think about the primary reader’s culture? What would you change in the communication if

the reader has a different cultural threshold? How much thought do you put into colors, layout, and

language? Are there different instances where you need to build a relationship or be more direct, more

visual?

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TECHNICAL WRITING 211

https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=35&v=r-uUUMxt390

http://erinmeyer.com/media/videos/

1 3 . 3 D E E P E N I N G C U LT U R A L U N D E R S TA N D I N G

In technical writing, it is further important to understand cultural communication because, like other

cultural systems, organizational culture controls the behavior, values, assumptions, and beliefs of

organizational members. It is a combination of organizational members’ own beliefs and the values,

beliefs, and assumptions of the organization. It is the role of the organizational leader, as a change

agent, to help create a positive organizational culture that meets the demands of a competitive

environment, board and shareholder expectations, and employee career satisfaction.

As a professional communicator in contemporary society, you need to be aware that the very

concept of community is undergoing a fundamental transformation.

Try this

Think about two different times you have been part of two different communities concurrently (for example, even

different classes in the same term). What were some of the differences in how communication functioned in the respective

environments? What affected those differences? Subject? Instructor? Peers? Style of class?

Intercultural and international business communication has taken on a new role for students as well

as career professionals.

Global business is more than trade between companies located in distinct countries; indeed, that

concept is already outdated. Intercultural and international business focuses less on the borders that

separate people and more on the communication that brings them together. Business communication

values clear, concise interaction that promotes efficiency and effectiveness. You may perceive your

role as a communicator within a specific city, business, or organization, but you need to be aware that

your role crosses cultures, languages, value and legal systems, and borders.

However, it is important to know we are still working with human constructs. From the building

we erect that represents design values to the fences we install that delineate borders, our environment

is a representation of culture, but it is not all that is culture.  Culture involves beliefs, attitudes, values,
and traditions that are shared by a group of people, as well as the psychological aspects of our

expectations of the communication context.

212 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

Try this

Pick an assignment from this class that you think might fit for a cultural revision. This might be something you do as an

individual or something you select from work a colleague has done.

1. Through research, discussion, or any other method, select a culture that you will want to amend this piece

of communication for. In other words, change the culture of the primary reader of your communication.

2. Revisit Chapter 2 “Audience Analysis” from our Technical Writing book.

3. Conduct any other research that will allow you to learn more about the changes you might need to make

to better allow your new primary reader to take action.

4. What would you change about that document to fit a primary reader from a different culture?

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TECHNICAL WRITING 213

1 3 . 4 D E F I N I N G I N T E RC U LT U R A L C O M M U N I C AT I O N

In defining intercultural communication, there are eight components of communication to work with

and yet the writer still must represent holistic meaning. It may be tempting to consider only the

(1) source and (2) receiver within a transaction as a representation of intercultural communication,

but doing so could mean missing the other six components—(3) message, (4) channel, (5) feedback,

(6) context, (7) environment, and (8) interference—in every communicative act. Each component

influences and is influenced by culture. Culture is represented in all eight components with every

communication. In this context, all communication is intercultural.

It may be tempting to think of intercultural communication as interaction between two people

from different countries. While two distinct national passports may be artifacts, or nonverbal

representations of communication, what happens when two people from two different parts of the

same country communicate? From high and low Germanic dialects, to the perspective of a Southerner

versus a Northerner in the United States, to the rural versus urban dynamic, geographic, linguistic,

educational, sociological, and psychological traits influence communication.  It is not enough to say
that someone from rural Southern Chile and the capital, Santiago, both  speak Castellano (the Chilean
word for the Spanish language), so that communication between them must be intracultural

communication, or communication within the same culture. What is life like for the rural Southerner?

For the city dweller? Were their educational experiences the same? Do they share the same

vocabulary? Do they value the same things? To a city dweller, all the sheep look the same. To the

rural Southerner, the sheep are distinct, with unique markings; they have value as a food source, a

source of wool with which to create sweaters and socks that keep the cold winters at bay, and in their

numbers they represent wealth. Even if both Chileans speak the same language, their socialization

will influence how they communicate and what they value, and their vocabulary will reflect these

differences.

Take this intranational comparison a step further. Within the same family, can there be intercultural

communication? If all communication is intercultural, then the answer would be yes. Imagine a

three-generation family living in one house. The grandparents may represent another time and

different values from the grandchildren. The parents may have a different level of education and

pursue different careers from the grandparents; the schooling the children are receiving may prepare

them for yet another career. From music, to food preferences, to how work is done may vary

across time; Elvis Presley may seem like ancient history to the children. The communication across

generations represents intercultural communication, even if only to a limited degree.  But suppose
you have a group who are all similar in age and educational level. Do gender and the societal

expectations of roles influence interaction? Of course. (Revisit the first Try This from “Deepening

Cultural Understanding.”) And so among these students not only do the boys and girls communicate

214 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

in distinct ways but also not all boys and girls are the same. With a group of sisters, there may

be common characteristics, but they will still have differences, and these differences contribute to

intercultural communication. We are each shaped by our upbringing and it influences our worldview,

what we value, and how we interact with each other. We create culture, and it creates us.

Try this

Revisit the revised audience analysis exercise from the previous Try This. For the target assignment and primary reader

of a new cultural context, If you were to have to resubmit this document in a different culture with a different context

threshold, what would you do in the revision?

Now, take it a step further: If you were a supervisor for this document, and the author / writer were of another culture,

how would you make your revision suggestions? How would you communicate those decisions across a different context

threshold?

Culture is part of the very fabric of our thought, and we cannot separate ourselves from it, even as

we leave home, defining ourselves anew in work and achievements. Every business or organization

has a culture, and within what may be considered a global culture, there are many subcultures or

co-cultures. For example, consider the difference between the sales and accounting departments

in a corporation. We can quickly see two distinct groups with their own symbols, vocabulary, and

values. Within each group, there may also be smaller groups, and each member of each department

comes from a distinct background that in itself influences behavior and interaction. Now, change that

context of a piece of communication leaving your computer. Who will read it? Who could read it?

What will your colleagues or readers of another culture take from it—intended or not?

Sometimes, the focus of technical communication is quite easy; the primary reader is clearly

targeted through demographic research. But, think about how much more effective, more dynamic, a

communication could be if the writer considered the potential cultural perspectives at work when the

document is read.

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14. THINKING ABOUT WRITING

A lot of people find that they really learn how to be a writer the first time they have a job. They have a

boss who is a stickler for proper grammar, they discover that their colleagues think they are too long

winded in an email, or they discover that a report they wrote is barely understandable according to

the conventions (the “rules”) of the field in which they are working. In all these situations, the reason

a writer finds that they are really learning how to write is that they are getting immediate real time

feedback from a reader–and that is really what distinguishes a lot of the writing that is done in the

professions compared to an academic setting.

Unfortunately, this learning process can be a slow one. Although the feedback is immediate, it

means that there is not someone necessarily instructing you in how to write. Instead, you yourself

must reflect on the reactions that you are getting each time you write and learn how to anticipate

those reactions. In other words, you have to become your own teacher.

One of the things you can do to improve your ability to write in workplace settings is to change

your mindset. Rather than focus on each individual piece of writing you might need to do, it is

worth taking a step back to get a sense of the bigger picture–the context–in which the professional,

technical, or workplace writing you need to do takes place. This chapter will teach you to approach

learning to write in a new setting as a writing researcher, a term that refers to people whose job includes

studying why and how people write (and, therefore, how people work and think). This includes

technical writers, communications specialists, speech writers, linguists, and rhetoricians, as well as

other social scientists.

Why focus on writing researchers? Because the work of these professions can and often is used in

developing effective communication and is closely linked to the kind of work that any professional

whose job includes writing must do in order to be successful (this includes just about everyone!).

By approaching writing from their perspective, with their particular “tools of the trade,” you will set

yourself up to be a successful writer in any context or situation.

First, this chapter will review the important role of curiosity in conducting meaningful research.

Then, it will define key concepts for research into writing: genres, genre sets, and genre systems. Finally,

it will explain various methods that can be used in order to analyze writing in various professional

fields.

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1 4 . 1 G E T T I N G C U R I O U S

Imagine you are an engineer tasked with building a bridge–or an architect tasked with designing a

building. In either instance, your job will necessarily entail asking a series of questions designed to

solve a problem:

• Who are the users?

• What is the purpose?

• What is the budget?

• What materials do I have available to work with?

• What regulations must I follow?

• Who do I have to work with on this project?

◦ Who will offer feedback and/or collaborate with me?

◦ Who are the decision makers?

◦ Who is potentially impacted by the job I do?

• How much time do I have?

The answers to these questions help you to identify information that is crucial to making smart

decisions. Most, if not all, the work that you engage in professionally will demand that you be willing

to ask questions (a lot of them!) to do your job well.

You will also likely find–if you have not already done so in your current work–that good answers

depend on good questions. Learning, whether in the classroom or in a professional setting, is most

successful when we open ourselves up to being curious about a problem. It also is most successful

when we approach situations as problems, or puzzles, to be solved, as opposed to situations that have

a single best answer.

The same mindset that applies to a wide variety of professional work applies to the study of writing

as well. The main difference is that for the person studying writing, how writing is composed and

used is the puzzle or problem to be solved. In other words, a writing researcher is usually studying

the engineer studying his/her problem and how they used writing as a part of that process. This is one

step removed or an example of “metacognition,” which is a term you may have heard. A very basic

definition of metacognition is “thinking about thinking.”

As a student, you practice metacognition any time you sit down to an assignment and, instead of

just completing it, you reflect on what is being asked of you, why it is being asked of you, and how you

TECHNICAL WRITING 219

should proceed in order to get the most out of completing the assignment. Taking the time to think

about how a situation is both similar to and different from situations you have encountered before is

likely to lead you to an awareness of your own learning and communication habits.

At this point, you might be asking yourself: What does this have to do with a technical writing

course? When you write in a technical or professional writing course, you are often, essentially, being

asked to work as a writing researcher. While in some instances you could be putting together a resume

for future use on job applications, more often you are not completing assignments that correlate

directly to some professional work you are doing. In other words, you are writing and examining texts

in one context (the classroom) that are actually intended for use in another (the workplace).

It makes sense, then, to spend some time thinking about how you can apply what you learn in one

to the other. After all, you all are likely already in or plan to pursue very different careers from one

another, and one technical writing course cannot possibly cover every kind of writing you will need

to know how to do. What a technical writing course can offer you, though, is a plan for learning all

those kinds of writing more quickly, effectively, and efficiently. In the following sections, you will

find an overview of different methodologies and principles that underlie the study of writing; such

methodologies and principles can comprise a kind of “toolkit” that you can take with you to whatever

profession you are pursuing–or that you are currently working in right now.

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1 4 . 2 G E N R E , G E N R E S E T S , G E N R E S Y S T E M S

Put simply, writing researchers study genres–what they are, and how they are used by people acting in,

and interacting with, the world around them. In other words, genres are their main object of study.

So what are they? In the following sections I provide some explanation of genres and the different

ways that you might encounter them. In a subsequent section, I describe the tools and strategies that

researchers use to analyze and understand genres.

G E N R E S : T E X T S O R AC T I O N S ?

When you hear or read the word “genre,” what comes to mind? For most of us, the word makes

us think of kinds–or types–of music, books, or films. Typically we use this word to differentiate

between country, rock, classical, or hip hop music; between science fiction, romance, biography, or

self-help books; between comedies, dramas, action/adventure films, or documentaries. But when

writing researchers use the term “genre,” they mean something a little different.

For researchers, “genre” refers to a typical way of organizing, presenting, and using language in

situations that recur–or repeat–over time. Still confused? Don’t despair. Genre is a theoretical term

for something that is actually pretty concrete, so let’s consider some examples before returning to a

working definition:

• A complaint letter

• An insurance claim

• A job description

• An annual review

• A legal brief

• A proposal

• A syllabus

• A receipt or a bill-of-sale

• A resume

• A lab report

• A medical record

• A letter of acceptance

• A personal statement

TECHNICAL WRITING 221

• A scholarship application

• A restaurant menu

• A to-do list

In every one of the examples above, you can pretty easily imagine who uses the text, where, when, and

for what purposes. A job description is created by a company to advertise a particular position and/

or to outline the responsibilities for the person applying/hired. It is either an official document (when

used for an employee) or it is a tool used to hire somebody (both company/organization and potential

candidates use the description to decide if a person is qualified).

In other words, genres are really texts-in-use, or texts that facilitate achieving some kind of purpose

or goal for people. They are not just descriptions–they are actions. So while it is tempting to think of the

forms you fill out at the doctor’s office describing recent symptoms as just a simple text or a piece of

writing, when we really study writing, we have to think about how that piece of writing facilitates the

doctor-patient relationship.

Or, take your course syllabus as an example. This genre is used by teachers and students to facilitate

communication about course expectations. Students are, then, the primary audience for the course

syllabus. The syllabus is a way of bringing the course “to life,” so to speak. But there are other

audiences for the syllabus: other teachers of the course, the instructor’s supervisor, administrators . .

. the list goes on. This one document is actually responsible for a tremendous amount of work–and it

is that work that writing researchers are interested in. The study of genres is at the core of the study

of writing. Only by thinking about examples of writing as genres–as actions–rather than as simply

documents or forms, can we develop an appropriate stance from which to learn how to write them.

Knowing who uses a text and why they use it helps us to figure out what the content of a piece

of writing needs to be as well as how to present that content. Consider the job description again: It

typically begins with an overview of the job as well as minimum qualifications. Why does it begin

there? Why isn’t this information at the end, or in the middle somewhere? The overview acts as a

kind of advertisement; it is there to attract candidates to the position. But the minimum qualifications

quickly help candidates to consider whether or not they should apply–which in turn saves the

company extra work identifying people who do not qualify. In that sense, the minimum qualifications

help both the job searcher and the company work more efficiently.

But, some of you might be thinking, sometimes the minimum qualifications are found later in the

job description. That is true. Can you imagine a reason for that? . . . If so, then you are doing the

work of a writing researcher. And, you have identified another important principle that applies to

genres: they aren’t formulas. In other words, there is not one exact way to write them. Instead, genres

are governed by what are called “conventions” or guiding principles. We can speak generally about how

to write any given genre, but there are always likely to be exceptions, which is why adopting a curious

attitude about writing, instead of simply looking for the “right way” to write something, will serve you

better as a writer (and a professional). It will also help alleviate frustration when what you thought

was the “right way” to write something ends up requiring editing or modification.

222 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

Sidebar

Here is a relatively effective test for identifying a genre: ask yourself, Who uses this text? If you can answer with a

particular profession, it is probably a genre. An easy, and maybe familiar, example is “the 5-paragraph essay,” which

many students learn at some point in their educational careers. If we ask who uses that text, we would have to answer

students and teachers–but those are very broad categories, and what the text does is lead to a particular grade. It is not,

however, an example of any kind of writing done outside the classroom setting. The text that most closely resembles

the 5-paragraph essay but that has real rhetorical purpose is the scholarly research article. Who uses this text? Well,

professors, scholars, or researchers write them in order to communicate the results of their research to other professors,

scholars, and researchers, and there are all kinds of real-world consequences tied to the publication of those articles:

tenure, funding, and professional status, to name a few.

Try this

Make a list of all the different kinds of writing that you do in a day. Then, for each, jot down a note or two about who uses

that writing and why. Does every text on your list make the cut for defining a genre?

W O R K P L AC E W R I T I N G

What about an email: is an email a genre? A text message? A tweet? Well . . . maybe. Here is where

things can get tricky in the study of writing. An email might contain a job announcement, after all.

Or you might use an email to communicate with your doctor about your ongoing symptoms. So

while there are “rules” or conventions that apply to an email or a tweet (or a blog or a text message),

it is important to realize that often these are simply platforms–or mediums–for communicating a

particular genre.

Still, it is worth noting that some of these other platforms or mediums form a large portion of

the kind of writing that happens for people in a wide variety of settings. Work simply would not

get done without them. So it is helpful sometimes to recognize and differentiate between technical

or professional writing (writing that is specific to an industry or job), on one hand, and “workplace

writing,” on the other hand. Generally speaking, we can refer to emails, notes, and some memos

and informal reports as the kind of writing that facilitates the production of other more public

or “polished” texts (for external audiences) than we have in mind when we write or say “technical

writing.”

Comparing Workplace Writing and Technical Writing

workplace technical

TECHNICAL WRITING 223

Memos
Progress reports

Meeting presentations
Emails

Announcements
Letters

Statements
Blogs

Meeting minutes

Grant proposals
Use cases

Instruction manuals
Incident reports

Technical reports
Schematics

White papers
Policies & Procedures

User Guides

G E N R E S E T S

Genres are at the heart of the study of writing, and another useful way for thinking about them and

developing your ability as a writer is to identify which genres “go together.” To put it another way,

every profession or occupation requires someone to communicate in a number of different genres.

The collection of those genres is referred to as a “genre set.”

Why might knowing the genre set for a particular job or position be useful? Practically speaking, it

is helpful when considering a job to know just what the writing requirements are. Once working in a

certain position, taking time to understand the relationship between the different genres can help you

to identify areas of overlap and thereby help you to be a more effective and efficient communicator.

Furthermore, studying the genre set can help us to understand how the writing in that position

upholds the goals of the company or organization—or undermines them.

Below are some examples of some different genre sets to get you thinking creatively about the

amount and diversity of writing/communication work that is involved in any profession (even ones

we do not typically think of as writing-intensive!).

Teacher/Instructor

• Syllabus

• Course Calendar

• Outcomes

• Lesson Plans

• Assignment Sheets

• Handouts

• Presentations

• Student Assessments/Progress Reports

• Lecture Notes

• Discussion Notes

• Recommendation Letters

• Grading/Feedback

224 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

• Reports

• Emails

Nurse

• Shift Report

• Patient Notes

• Charting & Documentation

• Orders

• Incident Reports

• Peer Review

• Emails

• Training/Continuing Education Exams

• Discharge Instructions

Engineer

• Analyses

• Project Descriptions

• Action Reviews

• Progress Reports

• Incident Reports

• Inspections Reports

• Proposals/Plans

• Memos

TECHNICAL WRITING 225

• Emails

• Recommendations

• Patents

• Meeting Notes

• Presentations

Try this

Find a friend or family member who works in a profession you are not that familiar with. Ask them to try and list all the

different kinds of writing they do as part of their job. If they are stumped, you can prompt them with a couple examples,

and remind them that any use of language–even if it is filling out a form–“counts” as writing.

Try this

Students are often surprised to find out that an occupation they thought did not require much writing is actually quite

writing intensive. Is there an industry or job that you are interested in pursuing as a career? Spend 10-15 minutes on the

internet searching for what kind of writing is involved for a professional in that field.

G E N R E S Y S T E M S

As Chapter 2, “Audience Analysis,” makes clear, the more you can think about writing-in-use (how

your writing will be read), the better your writing will be. Imagining your audience is an important

part of that process, and so is thinking about the other genres with which your writing will “work”

or interact. For example, a job description (genre 1) often prompts a job applicant to put together

a resume (genre 2) and cover letter (genre 3). The candidate will be contacted that they have been

selected in some fashion—typically a letter (genre 4) and perhaps asked to provide further application

materials, such as letters of recommendation or documentation of training/experience (genres 5, 6 . .

.).

The term given to the intersecting genres that facilitate a particular kind of work is “genre system.”

Often this term is used to refer to the genres that work together to form the work of a particular

organization–which often involves the intersection of genre sets. While you may never actually use

the term “genre system,” the idea of a genre system is something that all writers in workplace settings

are aware of to some degree. For example, knowing that a report you create may prompt follow-

up documentation can help you craft your writing in a way that helps the company or organization

complete its work successfully.

226 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

The more you can anticipate all the different contexts and situations that might be impacted by

the writing you do, the more quickly you will advance as a writing professional, because you will be

able to think critically about the audience for your writing and connect your writing choices to your

writing goals.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was written by Allison Gross, Portland Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0.

TECHNICAL WRITING 227

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2018/10/incident-report.docx

1 4 . 3 M E T H O D S F O R S T U DY I N G G E N R E S

The previous section outlined some key terms and definitions for the study of writing. This section

builds on that by providing an overview of research tools that can be used to better understand

writing-in-context. Some of these tools–like an interview–may seem more familiar to you than

others (such as genre analysis). At the same time, an activity you probably engage in every

day–observation–achieves importance when done in the context of research and analysis.

There is no one right way to “do” writing research. Choosing the right tools depends on what it is

you hope to learn. As you study a genre, whether it is a resume, a report, a procedural, or a complaint

letter, think creatively about which of the following methods might help you learn more about it.

G E N R E / T E X T UA L A N A LY S I S

If genres are the key object of study for writing researchers, then genre analysis is the key tool for

studying those objects–for unlocking their meaning. While it is true that we can learn a great deal

about genres by observing people using them and even asking their users about them (which I detail in

the next section), there is often important meaning that goes unnoticed by the producers and users of

a genre. This meaning is what writing researchers try to access by studying the genres themselves. To

put it another way, genres often have embedded in them a kind of code or shorthand that can reveal

important information about the context in which they are used. As someone learning to write in that

context, such information can help you to advance in your writing skills more quickly.

So how do writing researchers do this analysis? In short, genre analysis involves picking apart and

noting the various features of a particular text in order to figure out what they mean (i.e., why they

are significant) for the people who use that genre. In that sense, writing researchers act as detectives,

revealing clues in order to then piece them all together and generate a cohesive story about what those

clues mean.

It probably will not surprise you to know that, once again, curiosity plays an important role in

conducting genre analysis. While it can be tempting when looking at a text to think there is not much

to say about it (this is especially true when you take something as everyday as your grocery list or

the menu at a coffee shop), when we begin to ask questions, the complexity of a text (and the genre it

represents) is pretty quickly revealed.

Sidebar

A precursor to genre analysis is what researchers call “document collection.” While it is true that the more samples of a

genre you find the more reliable and extensive your analysis can and will be, analyzing even one text can reveal a great

228 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

deal. So, if genre analysis sounds kind of overwhelming or challenging, start by looking at a single sample text rather than

many.

The following questions can get you thinking about (and taking notes on) how you would describe a

sample text, by focusing on its content, its form, and its presentation:

• Questions of Content

◦ Who and what is referenced in the document?

◦ What information is included in the document? How much?

◦ What is the rhetorical purpose of the document?

• Questions of Form

◦ How is information organized, from beginning to end? In other words, what appears where?

◦ What kinds of sentences are used (questions, statements, commands, etc.)?

◦ What do you notice about the kind of language that is used?

◦ How would you describe the tone of the writing?

◦ How does the text use rhetorical appeals (ethos, pathos, logos)?

• Questions of Presentation

◦ Are section headings used in the document?

◦ Does the document include text only, or text and images? What is the layout like?

◦ What font size and style is used?

◦ How would you describe the “look” of the document?

Figure 1 provides a sample police incident report and is followed by some notes you would be

likely to make based on the suggested questions above. Alternate formats: Word version of incident

report; PDF version of incident report.

TECHNICAL WRITING 229

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2018/10/incident-report-2.pdf

Figure 1: Incident Report. Image credit: “University Police report” by State University of New York University Police Department at New Paltz

is in the Public Domain

230 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

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https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:University_Police_report.jpg

https://vimeo.com/25870334

Case Study, Part One: Notes on the Incident Report

• Content

◦ When the incident occurred

◦ Where the incident occurred

◦ Who was involved

◦ How many were involved

◦ Who was interviewed

◦ What happened (narrative)

◦ Which precinct is responsible for investigating

◦ Type of incident, people involved (victims/suspects), and location

◦ Filing information (case and incident numbers)

• Form

◦ Three distinct sections

◦ Logistical info appears first, “associated persons” appears second, narrative of the event appears

third

◦ Narrative uses simple declarative statements, typically with people occupying the place of subject

◦ Use of verbs is active but primarily neutral, with a focus on communication that transpired

(“responded,” “spoke,” “admitted,” “realized,” “advised”), with two instances of the use of passive

voice (“was advised”)

◦ Narrative is described with a neutral tone and feels formal

◦ Focus of narrative is on actions taken that

◦ Narrative is described in chronological order, beginning with officer responding to incident, moving

through the incident, and providing information on follow-up

• Presentation

◦ Items used for referential or filing reasons are numbered

◦ Information is organized into boxes and tables

◦ Each section is clearly labeled

◦ Abbreviations are used throughout

◦ Report is typed

TECHNICAL WRITING 231

After you have answered these questions, it is time to start looking for patterns and connections that

will help you draw conclusions about what these features mean. Doing so involves a kind of creative

thinking that is best done by someone who has been involved in studying or practicing the profession

under investigation. Generally speaking, it is best to give some consideration to how the features

of a particular genre might be connected to goals, objectives, and values of a particular position,

organization, and/or context, since it is that context that produced the need for that genre in the first

place.

Case Study, Part Two: Analysis of the Incident Report

The content, form, and presentation of the police incident report form work together to present a verifiable,

objective account. Used internally, the design of the form helps to create uniformity by directing the officer to

include the information that is likely to prove most salient for police purposes and for easy retrieval should future

incidents occur. This streamlined approach to documentation keeps the focus on material and factual evidence,

which clearly relates to the fact that this is a document that may be used in a legal context.

Generally speaking, a document that pays little attention to design, but has a great deal of detailed

content, might derive from a situation where people place heavy emphasis on the development of

ideas but don’t necessarily need to act on those ideas; on the other hand, if a document makes heavy

use of section headings in order to direct the reader more carefully, it might suggest a need for greater

efficiency of time and/or a number of readers with different background knowledge. Of course, there

are genres that will do both: include a great number of complex ideas, neatly organized into easily

accessible sections. No matter what you find, there is an interpretation to be discovered and explained

with evidence from the text itself. The connecting of evidence to interpretation/conclusion is genre

analysis.

[Genre Analysis Essay video without captions; Genre Analysis Essay video with captions]

I N T E R V I E W S

Interviewing is something that happens informally all the time when we query colleagues or

supervisors about how to write in a new genre. But a formal interview is a particular kind of research

method that takes a bit of practice and can be quite difficult if you have never done it before. With

a question we ask of a colleague, we usually have something very specific we want to know, but as

a research method, interviews are usually used in order to answer a research question–and it is that

distinction that you need to keep in mind.

A good research question, as you may have already learned in other college-level classes, does not

have an easy answer. In fact, it usually does not have a single answer either; instead, it is a question

that requires interpretation and that might be answered differently depending on who you ask. That

said, it is answerable, meaning that given the right collection of evidence, you would be able to craft

a response of some kind. In writing research, the interview is one way to collect just such evidence,

since talking to someone about how, when, and why they use writing in their profession can provide

all kinds of insight that you might miss if you were to analyze a text all by itself. Typically, these

232 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA

https://amara.org/en/videos/29EXmfmb1IqL/en/2388228/?tab=subtitles

kinds of questions (of the “how,” “when,” and “why” variety) help writing researchers to understand

the particular importance of writing to a specific profession, industry, organization, or even economy.

It is not uncommon for people in workplace settings not to realize just how much writing is a

part of their everyday work practices. In the course of being asked questions, though, they often

reveal the way that writing helps them accomplish their jobs successfully and make sure the company

or organization runs effectively and achieves its goals. This is true whether you are interviewing

a doctor, a firefighter, a restaurant manager, an electrician, a politician, a general contractor, or a

computer specialist.

Here are some general advice and reminders for getting organized to conduct an interview:

• Practice good manners when scheduling the interview. This is an opportunity to practice being

professional in your communication: everything you know about audience analysis should come

into play as you request someone’s time and input.

• Be sure to practice your interview questions ahead of time. Questions that seem straightforward to

you might not be clear to someone else; alternatively, they might clearly call for a different kind of

answer than what you anticipated. The best way to know is to practice them on someone who is

not your intended interviewee. Then, revise accordingly.

• Request permission to record the interview. You will be glad to have a record to return to if your

interviewee says yes. Whether or not you record the interview, though, be sure to take notes in the

interview (this is something you can and should practice in your practice interview as well).

Recording devices can fail; writing during the interview can also help you to focus on what your

interviewee is saying and to think of new, sometimes clarifying questions, as the interview

proceeds.

O B S E R VAT I O N

Another powerful research tool is simply observing where the writing of a particular profession takes

place. The values of a company or organization, the expectations they hold for their employees and

various working conditions are often on display if you only look for them. For example:

• Is the workplace open to the public, or does it require secure entry?

• Do people work in offices or cubicles? Or maybe there is no individual work space at all?

• How many meeting rooms are there? How big are they?

• Are people milling around, or are they mostly on computers?

• How is the workplace decorated?

• What is the dress code?

The answers to these questions can lead to new insight regarding how genres are used and produced

and help develop new questions for you to consider. Furthermore, observation also helps with

imagining texts in use, which is so crucial to an effective analysis of your audience.

G E N R E E C O LO G Y M A P S

A Genre Ecology Map, or GEM, is a visual representation of genres in action, interacting with one

TECHNICAL WRITING 233

another. Let’s consider an earlier example: the job description. We could explain, using words, that

the job description leads to job applications, which (often) lead to interviews and background checks,

the hiring of an individual and all the associated paperwork, as well as training materials. But if we

wanted to represent that visually, it would look something like Figure 2. Alternate formats: Word

version of Job Application GEM; PDF version of Job Application GEM.

Figure 2: Job Application GEM

All of a sudden, with a visual illustration, we have a slightly different understanding of the complexity

involved in the production and circulation of different kinds of writing. Figure 3 provides another

example, one that captures the intersection of different writers, positions, and stakeholders (put

another way: the intersection of different genre sets in the college classroom). Alternate

formats: Word version of Classroom GEM; PDF version of Classroom GEM.

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https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2018/10/Figure-2-Job-Application-GEM-1.pdf

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https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2018/10/Figure-3-Classroom-GEM.docx

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/3/2018/10/Figure-3-Classroom-GEM.pdf

Figure 3: Classroom GEM

Particularly if you are a visual learner, maps like those above can help you to “see” genres in a way you

might not otherwise and to reinforce what I have noted in sections above about how writing is not

static but actually performs “actions” in various workplace settings.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was written by Allison Gross, Portland Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0.

TECHNICAL WRITING 235

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1 4 . 4 C O N C L U S I O N

Whether you are in a class that takes a writing-about-writing approach and asks you explicitly to

conduct research or one in which the instruction focuses on writing in specific genres, adopting the

habits of a writing researcher will serve you well. For example, if you were asked to research a job that

you would like to apply for and then put together a job portfolio, research on what kind of writing

that position would require (beyond the information provided in the job description) could help you

craft a stronger cover letter. Moreover, the habits of a writing researcher will continue to serve you

as you produce writing in your future profession(s). Experienced medical professionals, for example,

recognize that the charting they do impacts not only the health of their patients, but also how they are

billed by insurance.

The success of all writing requires an awareness of one’s audience and context. With a greater

understanding of the methods and strategies that professional researchers use to explain how

audience and context work around and through different forms of writing or genres, you can apply

your knowledge explicitly in each new setting you encounter rather than assuming that what worked

in one situation is likely to work in another. While it is true that many writing principles hold true no

matter when and where you are writing, it is also true that the strongest writers know when and how

to vary those principles to achieve their objectives.

C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N

This chapter was written by Allison Gross, Portland Community College, and is licensed CC-BY 4.0.

236 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA